History of South India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The history of southern India covers a span of over four thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires.
The period of known history of southern India begins with the Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE to 200 BCE), Sangam period (c. 600 BCE to 300 CE) and Medieval southern India until the 15th century CE. Dynasties of Chera, Chola, Pandyan, Travancore, Cochin, Zamorin, Kolathunadu, Chalukya, Pallava, Satavahana, Rashtrakuta, Western Ganga, Kakatiya, Hoysala, Reddy dynasty, Seunas, Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate were at their peak during various periods of history.
The Vijayanagara Empire rose in response to the Islamic intervention and covered most of southern India. It acted as a bulwark against Deccan Sultanate and Mughal expansion into the south. When the European powers arrived during the 16th and 18th century CE, the southern kingdoms, most notably Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, resisted the new threats, and many parts eventually succumbed to British conquest. The British created the Madras Presidency which acted as an administrative centre for the rest of southern India, with them being princely states. After Indian independence, southern India was linguistically divided into the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana and Kerala.
South India remained in the Mesolithic until 2500 BCE. Microlith production is attested for the period 6000 to 3000 BCE. The Neolithic period lasted from 2500 BCE to 1000 BCE, followed by the Iron Age, characterized by megalithic burials.[1] Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Tirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.[2] The Krishna Tungabhadra valley[3] was also a place for Megalithic culture in South India.
Beginning of Iron Age
The earliest Iron Age sites in southern India date from c. 1200 to 200 BCE and some of sites are contemporary to Sangam period.
Hallur in Karnataka and Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu are notable iron Age sites of ancient southern India.[4]
Evidence in the forms of documents and inscriptions do not appear often in the history of ancient southern India. Although there are signs that the history dates back to several centuries BCE, we only have an authentic archaeological evidence from the early centuries of the common era. Until about 600 BC, literature composed to the north of the Vindhyas do not display any cognizance of the region to the south.[5] During the reign of Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) the three Tamil dynasties of Chola, Chera and Pandya were ruling the south.
Pandyan Dynasty
The Pandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties (Chola and Chera being the other two) who ruled the Tamil country from pre-historic times until the end of the 15th century. They ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are mentioned in Sangam Literature (c. 400 BCE – 300 CE) as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period.
The early Pandya dynasty of the Sangam literature went into obscurity during the invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century CE, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century CE and were in constant conflict with them. Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251) expanded their empire into the Telugu country and invaded Sri Lanka to conquer the northern half of the island. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 14th century CE. The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced one of the finest pearls known in the ancient world.
Chola Empire
The Cholas were one of the three main dynasties to rule southern India from ancient times. Karikala Chola (late 1st century CE) was the most famous king during the early years of the dynasty and managed to gain ascendency over the Pandyas and Cheras. The Chola dynasty, however, went into a period of decline from the 4th century CE. This period coincided with the ascendency of the Kalabhras who moved down from the northern Tamil country, displacing the established kingdoms and ruled over most of southern India for almost 300 years.
Vijayalaya Chola revived the Chola dynasty in 850 CE by conquering Thanjavur by defeating Ilango Mutharaiyar and making it his capital. His son Aditya defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and extended the Chola territories to Tondaimandalam. The centres of the Chola realm were at Kanchi (Kanchipuram) and Thanjavur. One of the most powerful Chola monarchs was Raja Raja Chola, who reigned from 985 to 1014 CE. His army conquered the Navy of the Cheras at Thiruvananthapuram, and annexed Anuradhapura and the northern province of Ceylon. Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, invaded Bengal, and undertook a great naval campaign that occupied parts of Malaya, Burma, and Sumatra. The Chola dynasty began declining by the 13th century and ended in 1279. Cholas were great builders and have left some of the most beautiful examples of early Tamil temple architecture. Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur is a fine example and has been listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Chera Dynasty
The Chera kingdom was one of the Tamil dynasties who ruled southern India from ancient times until around the 12th century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the Malabar Coast, Coimbatore, Erode, Namakkal, Karur and Salem Districts in South India, which now form part of the modern day Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Throughout the reign of the Early Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their territories, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast (Muziris), Karur and Coimbatore districts.
Trade relations
The region of Kerala (Cheras) was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with Arabs, Sumerians and Babylonians.[6] Phoenicians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially spices and cotton fabrics.[7][8] Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.[7] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.[7] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.[7] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[7]
Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of the Chera kingdom.[9] Megasthanes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Magadhan king Chandragupta Maurya (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and a Pandyan trade centre. Pliny mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from the Red Sea ports of Egypt purely depending on the South west monsoon winds. Later, the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes that "both Muziris and Nelcynda are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Kozhikode, and Barace near Alappuzha, which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire.[10]
Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.[11][12] Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty).[13] The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period.[14] The port of Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere near Kozhikode.[14] Its exact location is a matter of dispute.[14] The suggested locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.[14]
According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrikes starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces.[15] Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates.[16] The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of Malabar peppers.[17][18] Contemporary Tamil literature, Puṟanāṉūṟu and Akanaṉūṟu, speak of the Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of Malabar pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand in the West. The contact with Middle East and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of Cochin Jews, Mappila Muslims, and Syrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.
Satavahana Empire
The Śātavāhana Empire[19] was a royal Indian dynasty based from Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Pratisthana (Paithan) in present-day Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 300 BCE onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan Empire.
Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryans, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage of Hinduism. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with the Shungas and then the Kanvas of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge swathes of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The great Satavahana emperors Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni repulsed foreign invasions from the likes of the Western Kshatrapas and stopped their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.
Pallava Dynasty
The Pallavas were a great Indian dynasty who ruled in southern India between the 3rd century CE until their final decline in the 9th century CE. Their capital was Kanchipuram in present-day Tamil Nadu. Their origins are not clearly known. However, it is surmised that they were Yadavas and they probably were feudatories of Satavahanas. Pallavas started their rule from Krishna river valley, known today as Palnadu, and subsequently spread to present-day southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu. Mahendravarman I was a prominent Pallava monarch who began work on the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram. His son Narasimhavarman I ascended to the throne in 630 CE. He defeated the Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II in 632 CE and burned the Chalukyan capital Vatapi. Pallavas and Pandyas dominated the southern regions of southern India between the 6th and the 9th centuries CE.
Kadambas of Banavasi
Kadambas were one of the greatest kingdoms which ruled south India. Kadambas ruled during 345–525 CE. Their kingdom spanned the present day Karnataka state. Banavasi was their capital. They expanded their territories to cover Goa, Hanagal. The dynasty was founded by Mayura Sharma c. 345 CE. They built fine temples in Banavasi, Belgavi, Halsi and Goa. Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an administrative language as proven by the Halmidi inscription (450 CE) and Banavasi copper coin. With the rise of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, the Kadambas ruled as their feudatory from 525 CE for another five hundred years.
Gangas of Talkad
The Western Ganga Dynasty ruled southern Karnataka region during 350–550 CE. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas. They rose from the region after the fall of the Satavahana empire and created a kingdom for themselves in Gangavadi (south Karnataka) while the Kadambas, their contemporaries, did the same in north Karnataka. The area they controlled was called Gangavadi which included the present-day districts of Mysore, Chamrajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas. Gangas initially had their capital at Kolar, before moving it to Talakad near Mysore. They made a significant contribution to Kannada literature with such noted writers as King Durvinita, King Shivamara II and Chavundaraya. The famous Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola were built by them.
Chalukya Empire
The Chalukyas ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties: Badami Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas. The Badami Chalukyas were the earliest dynasty which ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba dynasty of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan region. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Badami Chalukyas before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. The Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
One of the first kings of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakeshin I. He ruled from Badami in Karnataka. His son Pulakeshin II became the monarch of the Chalukyan empire in 610 CE and ruled until 642 CE. Pulakeshin II is most remembered for the battle he fought and won against Emperor Harshavardhana in 637 CE. He also defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I. The Chalukya empire existed from 543–757 CE and an area stretching from Kaveri to Narmada rivers. The Chalukyas created the Chalukyan style of architecture. Great monuments were built in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami. These temples exhibit the evolution of the Vesara style of architecture.
The Eastern Chalukyas ruled along the eastern coast of southern India around the present-day Vijayawada. The Eastern Chalukya dynasty was created by Kubja Vishnuvardhana, a brother of emperor Pulakeshin II. The Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule for over five hundred years and were in close alliance with the Cholas.
Rashtrakuta Empire
The Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from Manyaketha in Kalaburagi from 735 CE until 982 CE and reached its peak under Amoghavarsha I (reign. 814 – 878 CE), considered Ashoka of South India. The Rashtrakutas came to power at the decline of the Badami Chalukyas and were involved in a three-way power struggle for control of the Gangetic plains with the Prathihara of Gujarat and Palas of Bengal. The Rashtrakutas commissioned some of the beautiful rock-cut temples of Ellora including the Kailasa temple. Kannada language literature flourished during this period of Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Shivakotiacharya. Emperor Amoghavarsha I wrote the earliest extant Kannada classic Kavirajamarga.
Second Cheras of Mahodayapuram
Much of history of the region of Kerala from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.[21] From the Kodungallur line of the Cheras rose the Kulasekhara dynasty, which was established by Kulasekhara Varman. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvananthapuram was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Cheras.[22][23] Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.[24] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period.[25] The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[26][27][28] For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains known as Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.[24] The era witnessed also a shift in political power, evidenced by a gradual increase of Namboothiri Brahmin settlements, who established the caste hierarchy in Kerala by assigning different groups separate positions.[29][30] As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala, which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".[30] Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha.[14] Athavanad, the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[14]
Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.[31] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[32] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.[33][34]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism.[35] The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines.[36] The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of the Pandyas and Cholas.[22] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.[citation needed] After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle.[37][38] The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.[39]
Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire was created by the descendants of the Badami Chalukya clan and ruled from 973–1195 CE. Their capital was Kalyani, present day Basava Kalyana in Karnataka. They came to power at the decline of the Rashtrakutas. They ruled from the Kaveri in the South to Gujarat in the north. The empire reached its peak under Vikramaditya VI. The Kalyani Chalukyas promoted the Gadag style of architecture, excellent examples of which are present in Gadag, Dharwad, Koppal and Haveri districts of Karnataka. They patronised great Kannada poets such as Ranna and Nagavarma II and is considered as a golden age of Kannada literature. The Vachana Sahitya style of native Kannada poetry flourished during these times.
Hoysala Dynasty
Hoysalas began their rule as subordinates of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and gradually established their own empire. Nripa Kama Hoysala who ruled in the western region of Gangavadi, founded the Hoysala dynasty. His later successor Ballala I reigned from his capital at Belur. Vishnuvardhana Hoysala (1106–1152 CE) conquered the Nolamba region earning the title Nolambavadi Gonda. Some of the most magnificent specimens of South Indian temples are those attributed to the Hoysala dynasty of Karnataka. Vesara style reached its peak in their period. Hoysalas period is remembered today as one of the brightest periods in the history of Karnataka. They ruled Karnataka for over three centuries from c. 1000 to 1342 CE. The most famous kings among the Hoysalas were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III. Jainism flourished during the Hoysala period. Ramanuja, the founder of Shri Vaishnavism or Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, came to Hoysala kingdom to spread his school of qualified-monism Hindu thought. Hoysalas encouraged both Kannada and Sanskrit literature and earned a great name as builders of temples at Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapura, Belavadi and Amrithapura. Such famous poets as Rudrabhatta, Janna, Raghavanka and Harihara wrote many classics in Kannada during this time.
The Kakatiyas
The Kakatiya dynasty rose to prominence in the 11th century with the decline of the Chalukyas. By the early 12th century, the Kakatiya Durjaya clan declared independence and began expanding their kingdom.[40] By the end of the century, their kingdom had reached the Bay of Bengal and it stretched between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. The empire reached its zenith under Ganapatideva who was its greatest ruler, responsible for uniting the upper and lower regions of eastern Deccan that spoke the Telugu language, for the first time. At its largest, the empire included most of modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and parts of Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Ganapatideva was succeeded by his daughter Rudramba who became the famous warrior-queen Rudrama Devi. The Kakatiya dynasty lasted for three centuries, but their existence can be dated back to the 7th century as per inscriptions although they only served as local chieftains to Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. Warangal was their capital which was founded in the 12th century. Marco Polo visited Warangal in 1289 and wrote extensively on the kingdom, the city, the queen Rudrama Devi, the prosperity and wealth of the kingdom and the way people live. By the early 14th century, the Kakatiya dynasty attracted the attention of the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji. Despite defeating the first attempt in 1303, it paid tribute to the Khaljis for a few years from 1310 after a successful siege by Malik Kafur and was besieged again in 1318 by Khusrau Khan. But they refused to pay tribute to the new Tughluq regime in 1320, which prompted annexation of the Telugu country by the Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. The Kakatiyas were eventually conquered by the forces of his successor Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1323.[41][42][43][44] The Kakatiyas were well-versed in administrative duties, military affairs, social policy and diplomatic affairs, developing a unique social structure which differed from other medieval Hindu kingdoms of the subcontinent. Their encouragement of cultural influences from the neighbouring Andhra region in Telangana and vice versa ushered in an era of prosperity and standard of living in both regions. It was made possible due to extensive building of irrigation tanks, artificial lakes and other kinds of small and large reservoirs, interconnected through linking techniques, which helped in converting the dry, arid and rugged areas of Kakatiya territory into a strong, wealthy and stable abode for people who migrated and settled in Telangana. The system of employing capable military officers (nayakas) from any background as part of earning new loyalists for the kings was pursued by them first and then implemented by the Vijayanagara Empire. They were egalitarian rulers who despite adhering to the varna system rewarded those who served the kingdom with loyalty. Their encouragement of inland and maritime trade with safety incentives and exemptions for merchants who faced loss in their sea-borne journey greatly developed commerce with other nations and faraway kingdoms, bringing vast amounts of riches. The Kakatiya legacy is preserved in the form of arts, literature and architecture as well as reservoirs which survive in Telangana. Their patronage of artisans, poets and musicians, also followed by subordinate kings, led to an extensive growth of Telugu language, customs and the overall culture assosciated with it. Their architectural legacy, borrowed from Western Chalukyas and later developing it into a distinctive style identified with the kingdom, is preserved in the form of forts, temples and gateways. Notable among these are the Warangal Fort, Kakatiya Kala Thoranam, Thousand Pillar Temple, Ramappa Temple, Kota Gullu, Elgandal Fort, Medak Fort and the temples at Pillalamarri in Suryapet. They built large reservoirs like the Pakhal Lake, Ramappa Lake, Bhadrakali Lake and Laknavaram Lake along with other bigger and smaller yet significant ones. They were also very likely to be the original holders of the Koh-i-Noor diamond which was mined in Kollur, Andhra Pradesh and the existence of diamond trade and markets were also mentioned in the writings of Marco Polo.
Kolathunadu
The ancient kingdom of Ezhimala in Northern Kerala had jurisdiction over the North Malabar which consisted of two Nadus (regions)- The coastal Poozhinadu and the hilly eastern Karkanadu. According to the works of Sangam literature, Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt between Mangalore and Kozhikode.[45] Karkanadu consisted of Wayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts of Kodagu (Coorg).[46] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of Ezhimala dynasty, took refuge at Wayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to Cheras, just before his execution in a battle, according to the Sangam works.[46] Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded by Mushika dynasty in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration of Tuluva Brahmins from Tulu Nadu. The Mushika-vamsha Mahakavya, written by Athula in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of the Mushika Royal Family up until that point.[47] The Indian anthropologist Ayinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of the Bunt community of Tulu Nadu was called Kola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.[48]
The kingdom of Kolathunadu, who were the descendants of Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power reportedly extended from Netravati River (Mangalore) in the north[47] to Korapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south with Arabian Sea on the west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea.[45] An Old Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa dynasty of Mangalore, can be found at Ezhimala near Kannur.[49] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[50] In his book on travels (Il Milione), Marco Polo recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors included Faxian, the Buddhist pilgrim and Ibn Batuta, writer and historian of Tangiers. The Kolathunadu in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e., Kadathanadu (Vadakara), Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom), Kottayam (Thalassery), Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor), Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.[51] The Nileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part of Kolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the Zamorin of Calicut, in the early medieval period.[52] The kingdom of Kumbla in the northernmost region of the modern state of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over the Taluks of Manjeshwar and Kasaragod, and parts of Mangalore in Southern Tulu Nadu, were also vassals to the kingdom of Kolathunadu until the Carnatic conquests of the 15th century CE.[47]
According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the North Malabar region was also home to several oldest mosques in the Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom near Kannur to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632).[53][54][33][55] According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayani, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in the Indian subcontinent.[56] It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.[57] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the erstwhile Kolathunadu contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE.[14] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala.[14]
Musunuri
After the downfall of Kakatiya empire, two cousins known as Musunuri Nayaks rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate and recaptured Warangal and brought the whole of Telugu-speaking areas under their control. Although short lived (50 years), the Nayak rule is considered a watershed in the history of southern India. Their rule inspired the establishment of Vijayanagara empire.
Reddy Dynasty
The Reddy Dynasty was established by Prolaya Vema Reddy. The region that was ruled by the Reddy dynasty is now in Andhra Pradesh except some areas of Chitoor, Anantapur and Kurnool districts. Prolaya Vema Reddy was part of the confederation that started a movement against the invading Turkic Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and succeeded in repulsing them from Warangal. Reddys ruled coastal and central Andhra for over a hundred years from 1325 to 1448 CE. At its maximum extent, the Reddy kingdom stretched from Cuttak, Odisha to the north, Kanchi to the south and Srisailam to the west. The initial capital of the kingdom was Addanki. Later, it was moved to Kondavidu and subsequently to Rajahmundry. The Reddis were known for their fortifications. Two major hill forts, one at Kondapalli, 20 km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondaveedu about 30 km west of Guntur stand testimony to the fort building skill of the Reddi kings. The forts of Bellamkonda, Vinukonda and Nagarjunakonda in the Palnadu region were also part of the Reddi kingdom.
The dynasty remained in power until the middle of the 15th century and was supplanted by the Gajapatis of Odisha, who gained control of coastal Andhra. The Gajapatis eventually lost control of coastal Andhra after Gajapati Prataprudra Deva was defeated by Emperor Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara. The territories of the Reddi kingdom eventually came under the control of the Vijayanagara Empire.