Corporate average fuel economy

The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards are regulations in the United States, first enacted by the United States Congress in 1975,[1] after the 1973–74 Arab Oil Embargo, to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) produced for sale in the United States.

CAFE neither directly offers incentives for customers to choose fuel efficient vehicles nor directly affects fuel prices. Rather, it attempts to accomplish the goals indirectly, by making it more expensive for automakers to build inefficient vehicles by introducing penalties.[2]

The original CAFE standards sought to drive automotive innovation to curtail fuel consumption, and now the aim is to create domestic jobs and cut global warming.[3][4] Stringent CAFE standards together with government incentives for fuel efficient vehicles in the United States should accelerate the demand for electric vehicles.[5]

CAFE standards are administered by the Secretary of Transportation via the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Observed CAFE by regulatory class[6][7]

Overview

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), as amended by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), requires that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) establish standards separately for passenger automobiles (passenger cars) and nonpassenger automobiles (light trucks) at the maximum feasible levels in each model year, and requires that DOT enforce compliance with the standards. DOT has delegated the responsibilities to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Through EPCA and EISA, U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) also preempts state or local laws: "a State or a political subdivision of a State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards."

Out-year and alternative fuel standard changes

In the years 2021 to 2030, the standards requires MPG to be the "maximum feasible" fuel economy. The law allows NHTSA to issue additional requirements for cars and trucks based on the footprint model or other mathematical standard. Additionally, each manufacturer must meet a minimum standard of the higher of either 27.5 mpg for passenger automobiles or 92% of the projected average for all manufacturers. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is directed based on National Academy of Sciences studies to set medium and heavy-duty truck MPG standards to the "maximum feasible". Additionally, the law phases out the mpg credit previously granted to E85 flexible-fuel vehicle manufacturers and adds in one for biodiesel, and it adds a requirement that NHTSA publish replacement tire fuel efficiency ratings. The bill also adds support for initial state and local infrastructure for plug-in electric vehicles.

Implementating regulations

On April 22, 2008, NHTSA responded to the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 with proposed new fuel economy standards for cars and trucks effective model year 2011.[37]

The new rules also introduce the footprint model for cars as well as trucks, where if a manufacturer makes more large cars and trucks they will be allowed to meet a lower standard for fuel economy. This means that an overall fuel efficiency for a particular manufacturer nor the fleet as a whole cannot be predicted with certainty since it will depend on the actual product mix manufactured. However, if the product mix is as NHTSA predicts, car fuel economy would increase from a current standard of 27.5 mpg‑US (8.6 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg‑imp) to 31.0 mpg‑US (7.6 L/100 km; 37.2 mpg‑imp) in 2011. The new regulations are designed to be "optimized" with respect to a certain set of assumptions which include: gas prices in 2016 will be $2.25 a U.S. gallon (59.4¢/L), all new car purchasers will pay 7% interest rates on their vehicles purchases, and only care about fuel costs for the first 5 years of a vehicle's life, and that the social cost of carbon is$7 per tonne of CO2. This corresponds to a global warming value of $4.31 savings a year per car under the new regulations. Further, the new regulations assume that no advanced hybrids (Toyota Prius), plug-in hybrids and extended range electric vehicles (Chevrolet Volt), electric cars (Th!nk City), nor alternative fuel vehicles (Honda Civic GX) will be used to achieve these fuel economies. The proposal again explained that U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) requires that "a State or a political subdivision of a State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards", and explained that laws or regulations applicable to motor vehicle greenhouse gas emissions are related to fuel economy standards. In mid-October 2008, DOT completed and released a final environmental impact statement in anticipation of issuing standards for model years 2011–2015.[38] Based on its consideration of the public comments and other available information, including information on the financial condition of the automotive industry, the agency adjusted its analysis and the standards and prepared a final rule and Final Regulatory Impact Analysis (FRIA) for MYs 2011–2015.[39] On November 14, 2008, the Office of Management and Budget concluded review of the rule and FRIA.[40] However, issuance of the final rule was held in abeyance. On January 7, 2009, the Department of Transportation announced that the final rule would not be issued, writing: "The Bush Administration will not finalize its rulemaking on Corporate Fuel Economy Standards. The recent financial difficulties of the automobile industry will require the next administration to conduct a thorough review of matters affecting the industry, including how to effectively implement the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has done significant work that will position the next Transportation Secretary to finalize a rule before the April 1, 2009 deadline." 2009 Obama Administration directive On January 27, 2009, President Barack Obama directed the Department of Transportation to review relevant legal, technological, and scientific considerations associated with establishing more stringent fuel economy standards, and to finalize the 2011 model year standard by the end of March. This single-model year standard was issued March 27, 2009, and is about one mpg lower than the fuel economy standards previously recommended under the Bush Administration. "These standards are important steps in the nation's quest to achieve energy independence and bring more fuel efficient vehicles to American families", said Secretary LaHood. The new standards will raise the industry-wide combined average to 27.3 miles per US gallon (8.6 L/100 km; 32.8 mpg‑imp) (a 2.0 mpg‑US (2.4 mpg‑imp) increase over the 2010 model year average), as estimated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). It will save about 887,000,000 U.S. gallons (3.36×109 L) of fuel and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 8.3 million metric tons. This 2011 single-year standard will use an attribute-based system, which sets fuel economy standards for individual vehicle models, based on the footprint model. Secretary LaHood also noted that work on the multi-year fuel economy plan for model years after 2011 is already well underway. The review will include an evaluation of fuel-saving technologies, market conditions and future product plans from the manufacturers. The effort will be coordinated with interested stakeholders and other federal agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency.[41] The new rules were immediately challenged in court again by the Center for Biological Diversity as not addressing the inadequacies found by the previous court rulings.[42] Projected MY2011 CAFE Under Different Rules 2006 Bush Rule 71 FR 17565 2008 Bush Proposed Rule 73 FR 24351 2009 Obama Final Rule 74 FR 14196 Passenger Cars 31.2 30.2 Light Trucks 24.0 25.0 24.1 Combined Fleet 27.8 27.3 Model year 2012–2016 Obama Administration proposal On May 19, 2009, President Barack Obama proposed a new national fuel economy program which adopts uniform federal standards to regulate both fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions while preserving the legal authorities of DOT, EPA and California. The program covered model year 2012 to model year 2016 and ultimately required an average fuel economy standard of 35.5 miles per US gallon (6.63 L/100 km; 42.6 mpg‑imp) in 2016 (of 39 miles per gallon for cars and 30 mpg for trucks), a jump from the 2009 average for all vehicles of 25 miles per gallon. Obama said, "The status quo is no longer acceptable."[43] The higher fuel economy was projected to reduce oil consumption by approximately 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m3) over the life of the program and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 900 million metric tons; the expected consumer costs in terms of higher car prices was unknown. Ten car companies and the UAW embraced the national program because it provided certainty and predictability to 2016 and included flexibilities that would significantly reduce the cost of compliance. Stated goals for the program included: saving consumers money over the long term in increased fuel efficiency, preserving consumer choice (the new rules do not dictate the size of cars, trucks and SUVs that manufacturers can produce; rather it requires that all sizes of vehicles become more energy efficient), reduced air pollution in the form of greenhouse gas emissions and other conventional pollutants, one national policy for all automakers instead of three standards (a DOT standard, an EPA standard and a California standard that would apply to 13 other states), and industry desires: clarity, predictability and certainty concerning the rules while giving them flexibility on how to meet the expected outcomes and the lead time they need to innovate. The policy was expected to result in yearly 5% increases in efficiency from 2012 through 2016, 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m3) of oil saved cumulatively over the lifetime of the program and significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 177 million of today's cars off the road.[44] By model year 2014, many of the program's goals were being met. The average new vehicle fuel economy was 30.7 mpg (35.6 mpg for cars and 25.5 mpg for trucks) and for the years 2012–2015, auto industry outperformed the GHG standard by a substantial margin. Consumers are expected to save an estimated 16.6 billion gallons of fuel over the lifetime of model year 2011 to 2014 vehicles due to the manufacturers exceeding the CAFE standards in those years.[45] 2011 agreement for Model Years 2017–2025 On July 29, 2011, President Obama announced an agreement with thirteen large automakers to increase fuel economy to 54.5 miles per gallon for cars and light-duty trucks by model year 2025. He was joined by Ford, GM, Chrysler, BMW, Honda, Hyundai, Jaguar/Land Rover, Kia, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Toyota, and Volvo—which together accounted for over 90% of all vehicles sold in the United States—as well as the United Auto Workers (UAW), and the State of California, who were all participants in the deal.[46] The agreement resulted in new CAFE regulations for model year 2017–2025 vehicles, which were finalized on August 28, 2012.[47] The major increases in stringency and the changes in the structure of CAFE create a need for research that incorporates the demand and supply sides of the new vehicle market in a more detailed manner than was needed with static fuel economy standards.[48] Volkswagen responded to the July 29, 2011 agreement with the following statement: "Volkswagen does not endorse the proposal under discussion. It places an unfairly high burden on passenger cars, while allowing special compliance flexibility for heavier light trucks. Passenger cars would be required to achieve 5% annual improvements, and light trucks 3.5% annual improvements. The largest trucks carry almost no burden for the 2017–2020 timeframe, and are granted numerous ways to mathematically meet targets in the outlying years without significant real-world gains. The proposal encourages manufacturers and customers to shift toward larger, less efficient vehicles, defeating the goal of reduced greenhouse gas emissions."[49] Additionally, Volkswagen has since approached U.S. lawmakers about lowering their proposal to double fuel efficiency for passenger cars by 2025. Volkswagen at the time claimed that the new plan was unfair, but the company was later revealed to have been systematically cheating emissions tests. As a result, Volkswagen is one of the only major auto manufacturers to not sign the agreement that has led to the current proposal from the Obama administration.[50] Daimler, producer of Mercedes-Benz brand automobiles, expressed similar views, saying it "clearly favors large SUVs and pickup trucks."[51] 2016 mid-term review The 2011 agreement set up requirements for a mid-term review to look at how the industry was progressing with the new standards. On July 18, 2016, the EPA, NHTSA and the California Air Resources Board (CARB) released a technical paper assessing whether or not the auto industry would be able to reach the 2022 to 2025 mpg standards. The Draft Technical Assessment Report, as the paper is called, is the first step in the mid-term evaluation process.[52] The government groups found that the auto industry had been successfully innovating and pushing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions. The paper said that the technology was cheaper or about what was expected in terms of cost, and that automakers were adopting new technologies quicker than expected. Still, the paper said that the 54.5 mpg-equivalent projection is unrealistic. That goal was based on a market that was 67 percent cars and 33 percent trucks and SUVs and higher fuel prices, but American customers weren't buying that many cars, as the market was still about 50/50 and was likely to stay that way. The paper said more realistic projections are 50 mpg to 52.6 if the 2012 standards are maintained.[52] 2012 to 2025 CAFE targets for cars 2012 to 2025 CAFE targets for light trucks Agreed standards by model year, 2012–2025  Model Year Passenger Cars Light Trucks footprint ≤ 41 ft2 (e.g., 2015 Honda Fit) footprint = 49 ft2 (e.g., Toyota Camry (XV70) ) footprint ≥ 56 ft2 (e.g., Mercedes-Benz S-Class) footprint ≤ 41 ft2 (e.g., Chevy S10) footprint = 54 ft2 (e.g., Ford Ranger T6) footprint = 67 ft2 footprint ≥ 74 ft2 (e.g., Ford F-150 w/ext. cab & 8-foot bed) 2012 35.95 31.19 27.95 29.82 25.35 22.27 22.27 2013 36.80 31.83 28.46 30.67 25.96 22.74 22.74 2014 37.75 32.54 29.03 31.38 26.47 23.13 23.13 2015 39.24 33.64 29.90 32.72 27.42 23.85 23.85 2016 41.09 34.99 30.96 34.42 28.60 24.74 24.74 2017 43.61 36.99 32.65 36.26 29.07 25.09 25.09 2018 45.21 38.34 33.84 37.36 29.65 25.20 25.20 2019 46.87 39.74 35.07 38.15 30.25 25.25 25.25 2020 48.74 41.33 36.47 39.11 31.01 25.69 25.25 Replaced March 30, 2020: 2021 50.83 43.09 38.02 41.80 33.12 27.43 25.25 2022 53.21 45.10 39.79 43.80 34.70 28.73 26.29 2023 55.71 47.20 41.64 45.89 36.34 30.08 27.53 2024 58.32 49.41 43.58 48.09 38.07 31.50 28.83 2025 61.07 51.72 45.61 50.39 39.88 32.99 30.19 NB: Real-world fuel economy values are about 20 percent lower than laboratory values used for CAFE. Use of E10 decreases fuel economy further by about 3 percent.[54] Additionally, there were minimum standards since EISA for domestically produced passenger automobiles being the greater of 27.5 mpg or 92 percent of the CAFE projected by the Secretary of Transportation for the combined domestic and non-domestic passenger automobile fleets manufactured for that model year. 2020 rollback In early August 2018, the EPA and Department of Transportation, then operating under the Presidency of Donald Trump, issued a proposed ruling that, if enacted, would rollback some of the goals set in 2012 under President Obama. It proposed freezing the fuel economy goals to the 2021 target of 37 mpg, would halt requirements on the production of hybrid and electric cars, and would eliminate the legal waiver that allows states like California to set more stringent standards. The EPA acting administrator Andrew R. Wheeler and the Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao issued a joint statement stating that the rule change was needed as the current rules "impose significant costs on American consumers and eliminate jobs", while the new rules "give consumers greater access to safer, more affordable vehicles, while continuing to protect the environment".[55] The proposal included a withdrawal of the waiver that granted California the ability to set its own GHG and ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicle) standards and that allowed other States to adopt the standard instead of the federal standard. Following publication of the proposed rule changes, California and eighteen other states announced that should the rule be enacted, they would sue the government to reject the rule.[55] The new ruling proposed by the EPA and NHTSA was named the Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) Vehicle Rules. It aimed to set new CAFE standards for MY 2022-2026 passenger car and light trucks and amend the 2021 MY CAFE standards because they are "no longer maximum feasible standards."[56] The safety reason provided by the government was to shift people to buying new vehicles once the vehicles become more affordable under SAFE standards, with a government study conducted to show new model year vehicles were associated with lower fatality rates.[57] After releasing the proposal on August 2, 2018, NHTSA and EPA held a comment hearing period for 60 days.[58] The deadline was later extended to October 26, 2018, after requests from 32 US Senators, 18 State Attorneys General, and others for a 120-day or longer comment period were received.[59] Researchers described in a December 2018 article in Science fundamental flaws and inconsistencies in the analysis justifying the proposed rule including miscalculating changes in the size of the automobile fleet and ignoring international benefits of reduced greenhouse gas emissions, thereby discarding at least$112 billion in benefits, and also by overestimating compliance costs and characterized such changes in the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking as misleading.[60][61]

New CAFE targets went into effect in June 2020 beginning with the 2021 model year, increasing at a rate of 1.5 percent per year, far lower than the nearly 5 percent increase they replace. Additionally, the minimum standard for domestic passenger cars was lowered from the 2020 model year level until the 2023 MY.[62]

Upon taking office, the administration of President Biden stated an intention to set new fuel efficiency standards.[63] In August 2021 NHTSA released its Notice of Proposed Rulemaking offering new standards for the 2024–2026 model years.

The final rule covering the 2024–2026 model years was signed on March 31, 2022. Fuel economy targets for cars and light trucks each increase 8 percent for 2024 MY, 8 percent for 2025 MY, and 10 percent for 2026 MY. NHTSA projects that the updated targets lead to an industry-wide average of 49 MPG by the 2026 model year given a fleet mix of 48 percent passenger cars and 52 percent light trucks. Additionally, since by law, the minimum domestic passenger car standard (MDPCS) is "92 percent of the average fuel economy projected by the Secretary for the combined domestic and non-domestic passenger automobile fleets," they are also updated. However, NHTSA is retaining a "1.9 percent offset" to the MDPCS because of past undercompliance with the standard, keeping a roll back of the Trump administration.[64]

Continuous functions of updated attribute-based targets as published in the March 31, 2022 Final Rule
 Model Year Passenger Cars Light Trucks footprint ≤ 41 ft2 (e.g., 2015 Honda Fit) footprint = 49 ft2 (e.g., Toyota Camry (XV70) ) footprint ≥ 56 ft2 (e.g., Mercedes-Benz S-Class) footprint ≤ 41 ft2 (e.g., Chevy S10) footprint = 54 ft2 (e.g., Ford Ranger T6) footprint = 67 ft2 footprint ≥ 74 ft2 (e.g., Ford F-150 w/ext. cab & 8-foot bed) 2021 49.48 41.99 37.05 39.71 31.49 26.09 25.63 2022 50.21 42.57 37.59 40.29 31.94 26.46 26.02 2023 50.99 43.23 38.16 40.93 32.46 26.89 26.42 2024 55.42 46.98 41.48 44.48 35.26 29.21 26.74 2025 60.26 51.13 45.12 48.32 38.31 31.73 29.07 2026 66.95 56.77 50.10 53.73 42.61 35.30 32.31

Active debate

There continues to be an active debate on the safety, costs, and impact of the CAFE program.

Effect on traffic safety

NHTSA has expressed concerns that automotive manufacturers would increase mileage by reducing vehicle weight, which might lead to weight disparities in the vehicle population and increased danger for occupants of lighter vehicles. According to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) in May 2020, "the smallest late-model cars remain the most dangerous, according to the most recent driver death rates."[65]

A National Research Council report found that the standards implemented in the 1970s and 1980s "probably resulted in an additional 1,300 to 2,600 traffic fatalities in 1993."[2] A Harvard Center for Risk Analysis study found that CAFE standards led to "2,200 to 3,900 additional fatalities to motorists per year."[66] The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety's 2007 data show a correlation of about 250–500 fatalities per year per MPG.[67]

In a 2007 analysis, IIHS found that 50 percent of fatalities in small four-door vehicles were single-vehicle crashes, compared to 83 percent in very large SUVs. The Mini Cooper had a driver fatality rate of 68 per million vehicle-years (multi-vehicle, single-vehicle, & rollover) compared to 115 for the Ford Excursion, which has a high proportion of fatalities from vehicle rollover. The Toyota Matrix was even lower at 44, while the rollover-prone Chevrolet S-10 Blazer 2 door was 232. The Nissan 350Z sports car (193) and the mechanically similar Nissan Altima sedan (79) show that driving style can't be isolated from engineering in these results. The analysis' conclusions include findings that death rates generally are higher in lighter vehicles, but cars almost always have lower death rates than SUVs or pickup trucks of comparable weight.[67]

Against this evidence, proponents of higher CAFE standards argue that it is the footprint model of CAFE for trucks that encourages production of larger trucks with concomitant increases in vehicle weight disparities.[citation needed] A 2005 IIHS plot shows that in collisions between SUVs weighing 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) and cars, the car driver is more than 4 times more likely to be killed, and if the SUV weighs over 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) the car driver is 9 times more likely to be killed, with 16 percent of deaths occurring in car-to-car crashes and 18 percent in car-to-truck crashes.[68] Recent studies find about 75 percent of two-vehicle fatalities involve a truck, and about half these fatalities involve a side-impact crash. Risk to the driver of the other vehicle is almost 10 times higher when the vehicle is a one-ton pickup compared to an imported car.

Proponents of higher CAFE standards also argue that the quality of the engineering design is the prime determinant of vehicular safety, not the vehicle's mass.[citation needed] In 2006, IIHS found that some of the smallest cars have good crash safety, and others do not.[69] A 2003 Transportation Research Board study show greater safety disparities among vehicles of differing price, country of origin, and quality than among vehicles of different size and weight.[15]: 17–21  A 2006 study discounts the importance of vehicle mass to traffic safety, pointing instead to the quality of engineering design as the primary factor.[70]

Economic arguments

A key argument is that economic forces are responsible for fuel economy gains, and that higher fuel prices already drove customers to seek more fuel-efficient vehicles.[71]

The law of supply and demand predicts an increase in gasoline prices would lead in the long run to an increase in the average fuel economy of the U.S. passenger car fleet, and that a drop in gasoline prices would be associated with a reduction in the average fuel economy of the entire U.S. fleet.[20]

Rather than mandating fuel economy increases, Charles Krauthammer advocated using a significant increase in gasoline taxes that would be revenue-neutral for the government.[72] CAFE advocates assert that most of the gains in fuel economy over the past 30 years can be attributed to the standard itself.[citation needed]

In 2007, CAFE standards were under attack by thinktanks, safety experts, car and truck manufacturers, some consumer and environment groups, and organized labor.[73]

Economic research in 2015 concludes that firms are shown to be more incentivized toward innovations on fuel economy while the expenses of other safety considerations are undetermined.[74]

According to the Transportation Research Board, the weakening of 2022-2025 CAFE standards would make it much harder for the U.S. to avoid a two-degree-Celsius global warming scenario as per the Paris Agreement, meaning substantial more effort would have to be made between 2025 and 2050 if the SAFE standard is administrated to halt the original CAFE regulations.[75]

A study has found that the adoption of CAFE standards, if supported together by government incentives, would accelerate the Electric Vehicle Market.[5] The U.S. could be less dependent on fossil fuels from the shift to EV market adoption.[citation needed]

Automaker viewpoints

In the May 6, 2007 edition of Autoline Detroit, GM Vice Chairman Bob Lutz, an automobile designer/executive of BMW and Big Three fame, asserted that the CAFE standard was a failure and said it was like trying to fight obesity by requiring tailors to make only small-sized clothes.[76][c]

In late 2007, Lutz called hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles the "ideal solution".[77]

Automakers have said that small, fuel-efficient vehicles cost the auto industry billions of dollars. They cost almost as much to design and market but cannot be sold for as much as larger vehicles such as SUVs, because consumers expect small cars to be inexpensive.[78]

Former GM Chairman Rick Wagoner admitted in 2008 not knowing which fuel efficiency technologies consumers really want, he said "we are moving fast with technologies like E‑85 (ethanol), all-electric, fuel cells, and a wide range of hybrid offers".[79][80]

Ethanol fuel being studied by GM and other manufacturers, has a "gasoline gallon equivalency" (GGE) value of 1.5, i.e. to replace the energy of 1 volume of gasoline, 1.5 times the volume of ethanol is needed.[81][82] To overcome this fact, Congress enacted The Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) in 1988 to gain CAFE credits for the manufacture of flexible-fuel vehicles.[83][84] The formula using an example is: alternative fuel vehicle that achieves 15 mpg fuel economy while operating on alcohol would have a CAFE calculated as follows:[84] Fuel Economy = (1/(0.15 AMFA factor)) x (15mpg) = 100 miles per gallon, providing a very healthy economic incentive for manufacturers of ethanol vehicles.[84]

NHTSA's public records show in 2005 that automakers publicly expressed doubts as to the economic practicality and feasibility of increased light truck CAFE standards.[22]

Toyota has invested heavily in developing the complex Hybrid Synergy Drive system, which allows the company to meet CAFE targets.[85]

Volkswagen embraced the rising CAFE standards and tailored its US product line with a fleet of economical, popular, inexpensive diesel vehicles, beginning in 2009.[86] In 2014 Volkswagen registered an impressive CAFE of 34 mpg‑US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg‑imp).[87] The company even received green car subsidies and tax exemptions in the US.[88] This result was achieved by installing a defeat device in the electronic control unit of each vehicle, in what is now known as the 2015 Volkswagen emissions scandal.[86]

Notes

Explanatory notes

1. ^ Frozen by Public Law 104-50
2. ^ Funding restored for CAFE rulemaking by Public Law 107-87
3. ^ This was said before the footprint-based standards were implemented.

Citations

1. ^ "CAFE Overview: "What is the origin of CAFE?"". NHTSA. Retrieved May 27, 2007.
2. Board On Energy; Environmental Systems (2002). Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards (2002). The National Academies. doi:10.17226/10172. ISBN 978-0-309-07601-2. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
3. ^ a b Baruch Feigenbaum; Julian Morris. "CAFE Standards in Plain English" (PDF). Reason.
4. ^ "A Brief History of US Fuel Efficiency Standards Where we are—and where are we going?". The Union of Concerned Scientists is a national nonprofit organization founded more than 50 years ago by scientists and students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. July 25, 2006.
5. ^ a b Sen, Burak; Noori, Mehdi; Tatari, Omer (October 1, 2017). "Will Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard help? Modeling CAFE's impact on market share of electric vehicles". Energy Policy. 109: 279–287. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.07.008. ISSN 0301-4215.
6. ^
7. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (December 15, 2014). "Summary of Fuel Economy Performance (Public Version)" (PDF). Retrieved December 23, 2018.
8. ^ "Gas Guzzler Tax". www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/guzzler/. US EPA. Retrieved November 11, 2014.
9. ^ "CAFE 2011–2016 Final Rule" (PDF). NHTSA. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
10. ^ a b "CAFE Overview". NHTSA. Archived from the original on December 5, 2006. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
11. ^ Kahane, Charles (October 2003). "Vehicle Weight, Fatality Risk and Crash Compatibility of Model Year 1991–99 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2009. Retrieved November 15, 2007.
12. ^ "Green Vehicle Guide". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved November 24, 2008.
13. ^ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (February 25, 2006). "How vehicle weight, driver deaths, and fuel consumption relate" (PDF). Status Report. 41 (2): 1–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved June 20, 2007.
14. ^ An, Feng; Amanda Sauer (December 1, 2004). "Comparison of Passenger Vehicle Fuel Economy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards Around the World". Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 8, 2012. Retrieved August 30, 2007.
15. ^ a b Wenzel, Tom; Ross, Marc (2003). "Are SUVs Safer than Cars? An Analysis of Risk by Vehicle Type and Model" (PDF). Transportation Research Board. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 9, 2008. Retrieved March 9, 2008.
16. ^ Evans, Leonard (2004). Traffic Safety. Science Serving Society. ISBN 978-0-9754871-0-5.
17. ^ Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards. Books.nap.edu. July 1, 2001. doi:10.17226/10172. ISBN 978-0-309-07601-2. Retrieved November 9, 2009.
18. ^ Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards. Books.nap.edu. 2002. doi:10.17226/10172. ISBN 978-0-309-07601-2. Retrieved November 9, 2009.
19. ^ Kockelman, Kara (January 2000). "To LDT or Not to LDT: An Assessment of the Principal Impacts of Light-Duty Trucks Light Truck Rule" (PDF). Transportation Research Board.
20. ^ a b Paul R. Portney; Ian W.H. Parry; Howard K. Gruenspecht; Winston Harrington (November 2003). "The Economics of Fuel Economy Standards" (PDF). Resources For The Future. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 1, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2007.
21. ^ "CAFE (Fuel Efficiency) Standards for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks". Archived from the original on January 29, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
22. ^ a b NHTSA. "Vehicles and Equipment". Archived from the original on July 11, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
23. ^ a b National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "Average Fuel Economy Standards For Light Trucks, Model Year 2008–2011, Final Rule (Light Truck Rule)" (PDF). U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2006. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
24. ^ Reuther, Alan (May 3, 2006). "Testimony Before The U.S. House Of Representatives Committee On Energy And Commerce" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 1, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
25. ^ U.S. Congress (June 2006). "49 USC 32905(a), (b), (c), (d)". U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Office of the Chief Counsel. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006.
26. ^ U.S. Congress (June 2006). "49 USC 32904(a)(2)(B)(iii)". U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Office of the Chief Counsel. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006.
27. ^ U.S. Congress (June 2006). "49 USC 32906(a)(1)(A)". U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Office of the Chief Counsel. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006.
28. ^ EPA and NHTSA (2012). "2017 and Later Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards – Final Rule" (PDF). Federal Register. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
29. ^
30. ^ "Summary of CAFE Fines Collected". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. July 24, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 17, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
31. ^ Center for Biological Diversity v. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit November 15, 2007).Text
32. ^
33. ^ "Compliance Question: Will automakers build bigger trucks to get around new CAFE regulations?". AutoWeek. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved April 7, 2006.
34. ^ "CAFE overview". NHTSA. Archived from the original on December 16, 2008.
35. ^ "Summary of Fuel Economy Performance" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. March 30, 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2009. Retrieved October 23, 2009.
36. ^ "Proposed Rulemaking To Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. September 28, 2009. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
37. ^ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (April 22, 2008). "Average Fuel Economy Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, MY 2011–2015". Archived from the original on May 12, 2008. Retrieved May 26, 2008.
38. ^ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (October 10, 2008). "Final Environmental Impact Statement, Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, Model Years 2011–2015" (PDF). Retrieved September 6, 2014.
39. ^ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (November 14, 2008). "Average Fuel Economy Standards, Passenger Cars and Light Trucks, MY 2011–2015. Final rule; record of decision" (PDF). Retrieved September 6, 2014.
40. ^ Office of Management and Budget (November 2008). "Rin 2127-ak29". Retrieved September 6, 2014.
41. ^ "Fuel Economy". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. March 27, 2009. Archived from the original on April 5, 2009. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
42. ^ "Lawsuit Challenges Obama Fuel Economy Standards". Center for Biological Diversity. April 2, 2009. Retrieved April 14, 2009.
43. ^ "Obama announces new fuel standards – Mike Allen and Eamon Javers". Politico.Com. Retrieved November 9, 2009.
44. ^ Office of the Press Secretary (May 19, 2009). "Obama Administration National Fuel Efficiency Policy: Good For Consumers, Good For The Economy And Good For The Country". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 19, 2009 – via National Archives.
45. ^ Draft Technical Assessment Report: Midterm Evaluation of Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for Model Years 2022–2025 (PDF) (Report). EPA. July 2016. p. 3-2. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
46. ^ 54.5 miles per gallon is based on a projected fleet average of 163g/mi of tailpipe CO2 emissions."President Obama Announces Historic 54.5 mpg Fuel Efficiency Standard". nhtsa.gov. Archived from the original on March 5, 2013. Retrieved August 9, 2011.
47. ^ "2017–2025 CAFE GHG Supplemental rules". NHTSA. Archived from the original on August 30, 2012. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
48. ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards and the Market for New Vehicles, 2011
49. ^ "STATEMENT BY TONY CERVONE, EXECUTIVE VICE PRESIDENT, COMMUNICATIONS, VOLKSWAGEN GROUP OF AMERICA REGARDING PROPOSED CAFE STANDARDS". volkswagengroupamerica.com. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
50. ^ Mihalascu, Dan. "VW attacks proposed CAFE standards, goes to White House". www.inautonews.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
51. ^ Rascoe, Ayesha; Seetharaman, Deepa (July 29, 2011). "Obama unveils sharp increase in auto fuel economy". Reuters. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
52. ^ a b "54.5 mpg target is off the table, U.S. regulators say". July 18, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2016.
53. ^ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "2017–2025 Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle GHG Emissions and CAFE Standards: Supplemental" (PDF).
54. ^ "How much ethanol is in gasoline, and how does it affect fuel economy? - FAQ - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
55. ^ a b Davenport, Coral (August 2, 2018). "Trump Administration Unveils Its Plan to Relax Car Pollution Rules". The New York Times. Retrieved August 3, 2018.
56. ^ "The Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) Vehicles Rule for Model Years 2021-2026 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks". EPA: Regulations for Emissions from Vehicles and Engines. August 24, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
57. ^ "U.S. DOT and EPA Propose Fuel Economy Standards for MY 2021-2026 Vehicles" (Press release). August 2, 2018. Retrieved February 16, 2019.
58. ^ matthew.lynberg.ctr@dot.gov (November 7, 2016). "Corporate Average Fuel Economy". NHTSA. Retrieved September 4, 2018.
59. ^
60. ^ Bento, Antonio M.; Gillingham, Kenneth; Jacobsen, Mark R.; Knittel, Christopher R.; Leard, Benjamin; Linn, Joshua; McConnell, Virginia; Rapson, David; Sallee, James M.; van Benthem, Arthur A.; Whitefoot, Kate S. (December 6, 2018). "Flawed analyses of U.S. auto fuel economy standards". Science. 362 (6419): 1119–1121. Bibcode:2018Sci...362.1119B. doi:10.1126/science.aav1458. PMID 30523100. S2CID 54456988.
61. ^ Meyer, Robinson (February 12, 2020). "'We Knew They Had Cooked the Books'". The Atlantic. ISSN 1072-7825. Retrieved February 16, 2020.
62. ^
63. ^ Exec. Order No. 13990 (January 20, 2021; in en) President of the United States. Retrieved on 28 March 2022.
64. ^ 87 FR 25710
65. ^ "Driver death rates remain high among small cars". Insurance Institute of Highway Safety. May 28, 2020.
66. ^ "Road Regs". National Review. Retrieved June 22, 2007.
67. ^ a b Insurance Institute of Highway Safety (April 19, 2007). "Driver Deaths By Make and Model" (PDF). Status Report. 42 (4): 1–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2008.
68. ^ Insurance Institute of Highway Safety (April 28, 2005). "In Collisions with Cars, SUVs are Incompatible" (PDF). Status Report. 42 (4): 1–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007.
69. ^ Insurance Institute of Highway Safety (December 19, 2006). "Minicars First Test Results" (PDF). Status Report. 41 (10): 1–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007.
70. ^ Wenzel, Tom; Ross, Marc (September 18, 2006). "Increasing the Fuel Economy and Safety of New Light-Duty Vehicles" (PDF). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved June 20, 2007.
71. ^ "One Third of Consumers Looking at More Fuel-Efficient Cars". Archived from the original on April 10, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2007.
72. ^ Krauthammer, Charles (January 8, 2015). "Raise the gas tax. A lot". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
73. ^ "Congress debates CAFE moratorium again". Environment News. Retrieved June 22, 2007.
74. ^ Tucker, Reginald (September 2012). "New CAFE standards impact OEM parts suppliers, PM industry". Metal Powder Report. 67 (5): 3–4. doi:10.1016/s0026-0657(12)70054-1. ISSN 0026-0657.
75. ^ Samantha, Houston; David, Keith (January 2018). "Consequences of Weakening 2022–2025 Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards".
76. ^ "Autoline Detroit". Retrieved May 6, 2007.
77. ^ Berman, Bradley (November 19, 2007). "Bob Lutz, the Chevy Volt and the Easter Bunny". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on March 10, 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
78. ^ a b James R. Healey (July 2, 1999). Death By the Gallon. USA Today. Archived from the original on September 18, 2013.
79. ^ Kelly, Matt (January 18, 2008). GM's Chairman Rick Wagoner Meets with Bloggers at NAIAS (Web Video). North American International Auto Show Detroit: NextGear. Archived from the original on March 24, 2008. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
80. ^ Terlep, Sharon (January 4, 2008). "GM says 2010 no sure thing for Volt". The Detroit News. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
81. ^ "Gasoline Gallon Equivalent (GGE) Definition". energy.gov. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
82. ^ "Alternative Fuels Data Center – Fuel Properties Comparison" (PDF). Alternative Fuels Data Center. October 29, 2014.
83. ^ "Report to Congress on Effects of the Alternative Motor Fuels Act CAFE Incentives Policy". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
84. ^ a b c "The Corporate Average Fuel Economy Program (CAFE) - Background: AMFA CAFE Credits". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original on December 10, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
85. ^ Briggs, John (January 23, 2020). "Toyota Prius was a hybrid trendsetter 15 years ago. Now what?". Green Car Reports, a division of Internet Brands El Segundo, CA.
86. ^ a b "The dieselgate dilemma - End of the road for clean, affordable diesel cars?". The Economist. The Economist Newspaper Limited. January 12, 2016.
87. ^ Hicks, Maurice (December 2014). "Summary of Fuel Economy Performance (Public Version)" (PDF). NHSTA.gov. NHTSA/CAFE. p. 9. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
88. ^ "Taxpayers Paid $51M in Green Car Subsidies Linked to VW Diesels". Motor Trend. September 23, 2015. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. 89. ^ BERESFORD, Colin (July 22, 2020). "Other Automakers Paid Tesla a Record$428 Million Last Quarter". Car and Driver.
90. ^ Highway Loss Data Institute. "Auto Insurance Loss Facts" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2007. Retrieved June 26, 2007.
91. ^ Rob Sass (August 1, 2013). "Heavier. Slower. Safer". Hagerty.
92. ^ Tyler Hoover (February 9, 2017). "A Tale of Two Mercedes: When the Grey Market Made U.S.-Spec Cars Compete With Euro Models". Autotrader.
93. ^ "1984 Mercedes-Benz 500SEL: History of the 1979-1992 Mercedes-Benz W126". The Hagerty Group LLC. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
94. ^ Jeff Koch (April 2008). "Cadillac V-8-6-4 A variable displacement engine that tried to split the difference between power and economy". Hemmings Motor News. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
95. ^ "Tax Administration Gas Guzzler Tax Compliance Can Be Increased" (PDF). United States General Accounting Office. July 16, 1987. p. 2. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
96. ^ Lowy, Joan (January 8, 2003). "Stations reject TV ads that connect SUVs to terrorism". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
97. ^ DeGaspari, John (April 4, 2004). "Retooling Cafe". Mechanical Engineering Magazine. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
98. ^ NHTSA. "Five-Star Crash Test and Rollover Ratings". Retrieved October 24, 2020.
99. ^ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. "Vehicle Ratings". Archived from the original on December 31, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2020.
100. ^ "Fuel Economy is the Best Incentive". Consumer Reports. August 2006. Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
101. ^ The Mellman Group, Inc. (October 26, 2007). "Voters Believe Passing Increased Fuel Efficiency Standards Is The Most Important Accomplishment This Congress Could Enact" (PDF). The Pew Charitable Trusts. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 10, 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
102. ^ Simon, Bernard (January 8, 2003). "Toyota Prius Sales Pass Ford Explorer in U.S." Financial Times. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
103. ^ Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. "Fuel Economy Guide Model Year 2007" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved March 3, 2008.
104. ^ Edmunds. "Depreciation Ratings". Archived from the original on July 1, 2007. Retrieved June 26, 2007.
105. ^ Brown, Warren (April 13, 2007). "Greenhouse Real Wheels". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 22, 2007.
106. ^ Brown, Warren (August 29, 2004). "The Station Wagon Stealthily Returns". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 22, 2007.
107. ^ "Chrysler PT Cruiser – Official Site [wheelbase * avg track = 41.73 Footprint]". Archived from the original on June 21, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.
108. ^ Cost, effectiveness and deployment of fuel economy technologies for light-duty vehicles. District of Columbia: the National Academy of Sciences. 2015. p. 278. doi:10.17226/21744. ISBN 978-0-309-37388-3. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
109. ^ Greene, David (April 19, 2007). "The President's State of the Union Fuel Economy Plan: How I know it will work" (PDF). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 10, 2008. Retrieved August 4, 2008.
110. ^ "Fuel efficiency vs. reality". CNN. January 11, 2006. Retrieved February 4, 2008.
111. ^ Walsh, Bryan (November 7, 2008). "CAFE Standards: Fuzzy Math on Fuel Economy". Time. Archived from the original on November 12, 2008. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
112. ^ "New MPG Ratings". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved June 3, 2007.
113. ^ "New MPG Ratings" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved June 3, 2007.
114. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Fuel Economy Guide". Retrieved March 23, 2008.
115. ^ "CAFE Fines No Deterent [sic] To Some Luxury Brands". Archived from the original on July 7, 2012.
116. ^ a b c d
117. ^ a b
118. ^ "Mercedes-Benz USA Notes Record Sales In 2007". Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved October 2, 2010.
119. ^
120. ^ "CPI Inflation Calculator". Data.bls.gov. Retrieved March 24, 2022.
121. ^ Natural Resources Defense Council v. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2nd Cir. 2018-06-29).Text
Corporate average fuel economy

This browser is not supported by Wikiwand :(
Wikiwand requires a browser with modern capabilities in order to provide you with the best reading experience.

Back to homepage

Please click Allow in the top-left corner,
then click Install Now in the dialog
then click Install
then click Install

Install Wikiwand

Install on Chrome Install on Firefox

Enjoying Wikiwand?

Share on Gmail Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Share on Buffer