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Xhosa people
Bantu ethnic group From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Xhosa people (/ˈkɔːsə/ KAW-sə, /ˈkoʊsə/ KOH-sə;[2][3][4] Xhosa pronunciation: [kǁʰɔ́ːsa] ⓘ) are a Bantu ethnic group that migrated over centuries into Southern Africa eventually settling in South Africa. They are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa and are native speakers of the isiXhosa language.
The Xhosa people are descendants of Nguni clans who settled in the Southeastern part of Southern Africa displacing the original inhabitants, the Khoisan. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have inhabited the area since the 7th century.
Presently, over ten million Xhosa-speaking people are distributed across Southern Africa. In 1994 the self-governing bantustans of Transkei and Ciskei were incorporated into South Africa, becoming the Eastern Cape province.
As of 2003,[update] the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 19.8 million, lived in the Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (971,045), the Free State (546,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), and Limpopo (14,225).[5]
There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking (Mfengu) community in Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognised as an official national language. This community was brought by Cecil John Rhodes for cheap labour in Rhodesian mines in early 20th century.[clarification needed][6]
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History
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Some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have lived in the Eastern Cape area since at least the 7th century.[7] The modern Xhosa are Nguni people, a stock of Bantu [citation needed]
Origins
The Xhosa people are descendants of the ancestors of Ngunis. Xhosa oral history also mentions a historical settlement called 'Eluhlangeni' believed to have been in East Africa in which the Ngunis lived in for some time before continuing with their migration.[citation needed]
Upon crossing mountains and rivers in South Africa, these farm-working agro-pastoralists brought their cattle and goats with them and absorbed the weaker San groups in the region. They also brought weapons, notably their assegais and their shields and would form groups or chiefdoms and kingdoms mainly in what is now the Eastern Cape.[citation needed]
Kingdom
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According to oral tradition, the modern Xhosa Kingdom was founded somewhere before the 15th century by Tshawe (whom the royal clan of the Xhosas is named after) who overthrew his brother Cirha (assisted by his brother Jwarha) with the help of the amaNgwevu clan of the amaMpondomise Kingdom. Tshawe and his army then incorporated formerly independent Nguni clans into the Xhosa Kingdom. Khoekhoe tribes were incorporated, including the Inqua, the Giqwa, and the amaNgqosini (both Khoi and Sotho origin).
Formerly independent clans (many of Khoekhoe origin) and chiefdoms in the region became tributary to the amaTshawe and spoke isiXhosa as their primary language.
The Xhosa polity achieved political ascendancy over most of the Cape Khoe extending to the very fringes of the Cape Peninsula.[8]
With the settlement of the Cape by Europeans in 1652, the native populations were gradually pushed eastwards until, in the 1700s, the borders of the Cape Colony had pushed populations far enough east (with relations between colonist and native significantly broken down) to create a critical mass of hostile population to resist the colonists in the Eastern Cape. This sparked off the Cape frontier wars, which represent some of the longest military resistance to colonialism.[9]
The historical end result would be the containment of large portions of the Cape native population into native reserves in the Easternmost part of the Cape. However, these populations would also continually serve as labour inside the Cape Colony. These native reserves would be re-branded "homelands" in the 20th century and would only be fully dismantled in 1994, with populations moving back into the wider Cape.
In the 19th century, the Xhosas fought and repulsed many tribes that were escaping the Zulus in the Colony of Natal, this was during the historical mfecane. Those who were accepted were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions.[citation needed] The Xhosas called these various tribes AmaMfengu, meaning wanderers, and were made up of clans such as the amaBhaca, amaBhele, amaHlubi, amaZizi and Rhadebe. To this day, the descendants of the amaMfengu are part of the Xhosa people and they speak isiXhosa and practice the Xhosa culture.[citation needed]
Xhosa unity and ability to fight off colonial encroachment was to be weakened by the famines and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858. Historians now view this movement as a millennialist response, both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy.[citation needed]
Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people.[citation needed] That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress (ANC), South Africa's ruling political party in the government.[10]
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Language
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal language categorized under Bantu linguistic classification. While the Xhosas call their language "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to as "Xhosa" in English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken by about 18% of the South African population, and has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken in urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, particularly those living in urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.[11]
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Xhosa Rites of Passage
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The Xhosa people, one of South Africa’s largest ethnic groups, uphold rich traditional rites of passage collectively known as imikhwetha. These sacred practices mark significant life stages, especially the transition from childhood to adulthood, and serve to connect individuals to their community, ancestors, and cultural heritage.[12]
Key Ritual Stages and Terms
Imbeleko is a deeply meaningful ceremony performed shortly after a child’s birth to introduce the newborn to the ancestors and formally welcome them into the family and community.[12]
Intonjane is the traditional initiation ceremony for girls, marking their passage into womanhood. Unlike boys, girls undergoing intonjane are not circumcised but experience seclusion and guidance on the roles, responsibilities, and cultural expectations of womanhood.[13]
Ulwaluko is the cornerstone male initiation rite, meaning "transition" or "circumcision." It marks the transformation of an inkwenkwe (boy) into an indoda (man). The broader ulwaluko process comprises distinct phases:
1 Ukungena ("Entry"): Early morning circumcision is performed at the kraal (homestead enclosure) by an ingcibi (traditional surgeon). Elders and older men then accompany the initiate, called the umkhewtha, to the secluded ibhoma or bhoma—a traditional round hut usually situated in mountainous or remote areas—where he will spend the seclusion period.[12]
2 Seclusion in the Iboma: Typically lasting two to three weeks (shorter nowadays due to schooling and work commitments, though a full month is occasionally practiced), the initiate lives in isolation. During this time, he receives teachings from elders and appointed attendants called ikhankatha about cultural responsibilities, community ethics, survival skills, and the meaning of manhood within Xhosa society. The initiate sheds his former clothes and dons special traditional attire symbolizing his new identity. In some communities, he carries a stick representing adulthood, maturity, and authority.[14][12]
3 Ukuphuma ("Emergence" or "Homecoming"): Upon completing the seclusion period, the initiate exits the ibhoma and runs to the nearest river to bathe, cleansing himself physically and spiritually, symbolizing rebirth and full acceptance as a man by the community.[12]
4 Umgidi: A vital celebration held on the initiate’s return home after ukuphuma. The family and wider community slaughter a sheep or cow in his honour, showering gifts and recognizing the newly initiated men (amakrwala, plural of ikrwala). This communal feast emphasizes acceptance, new social status, and belonging.[14]
5 Ukusoka: The post-initiation ritual that often follows umgidi, involving symbolic gift-giving and public affirmation of the initiate’s status as a man. This phase includes wearing distinct traditional garments and participation in social functions that reinforce the transition.[12]
6 Burning of the Iboma: On the day of umgidi or shortly thereafter, the ibhoma and initiation paraphernalia—including the initiate’s old clothes discarded during seclusion—are ceremonially burnt. This ritual seals the initiate’s metamorphosis and spiritually closes the seclusion chapter.[12]
The term umphumo sometimes refers to the homecoming ceremony synonymous with ukuphuma and umgidi, marking the initiate’s reintegration into the community as a recognized man.
Clan names, or isiduko, passed down orally, are fundamental to Xhosa identity and social relations. Knowing one’s isiduko is central to cultural belonging and cohesion.[12]
Modern Health and Safety Interventions
Since 1994, over 825 deaths and spread of infections, including HIV transmitted by shared blades, have made circumcision practices controversial.[12] In 2007, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) aired the mini-series Umthunzi Wentaba about Xhosa initiation rites, but it was pulled after traditional leaders objected to publicizing secret practices. In 2014, a Dutch doctor launched ulwaluko.co.za, featuring photographs of injuries from initiations, angering Eastern Cape leaders. The South African Film and Publication Board deemed the site scientific and educational, emphasizing the urgent need for awareness.
Due to historic and ongoing health risks—including infections, complications, and fatalities tied to unsanitary circumcision practices—both governmental agencies and traditional authorities have implemented reforms to safeguard initiates:
- Legal age verification is mandatory prior to initiation, commonly setting the minimum age at 16 or 18 years.
- Parental or guardian consent is required for minors.
- Medical examinations before circumcision ensure initiates are healthy enough for the procedure.
- Traditional surgeons (ingcibi) and initiation schools must be registered and subject to oversight enforcing safety protocols.
- Initiates are required to drink water regularly during seclusion, a measure introduced to prevent dangerous dehydration, which was previously practiced culturally in some circles.
- The use of sterile cutting instruments is promoted aggressively to avert transmission of HIV/AIDS, tetanus, and other infections.
- The Customary Initiation Act (2021) legislates cultural rites while ensuring health standards and human rights protections are met. This act legally mandates compliance with specified initiation regulations.[15]
Despite these efforts, challenges remain, with ongoing advocacy urging stricter enforcement to reduce injury and death rates linked to initiation complications—which since 1994 have exceeded 800.[12]
Cultural Significance and Controversy
Ulwaluko remains a profoundly sacred and secretive rite, reserved exclusively for initiates and elder men. Media or public discussion of the rituals is often sensitive and can provoke backlash from communities.
Female initiation (intonjane) also involves seclusion and cultural education but does not include circumcision.[13]
The practice of ulwaluko includes traditional body adornment such as clay body paint (umhlonyane or white ochre) and concludes with the burning of the ibhoma, symbolizing purification and rebirth.
These rites embody the transfer of personal identity, responsibilities, and communal duties from elders to younger generations.
Western criticisms often overlook the cultural context and the evolving safeguards embraced by Xhosa communities, many of whom strongly defend these traditions as essential to cultural preservation.[16]
Additional Related Customs
Imikhwetha are often accompanied by community-wide celebrations featuring traditional dances, singing, and feasts.[12]
Post-birth rituals include imbeko and burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the homestead, customs elaborated in greetings such as Inkaba yakho iphi? (“Where is your navel?”), which reveals one’s origins, clan, and social status.[12]
Summary
The Xhosa rites of passage are deeply embedded in cultural identity and the social fabric, reflecting centuries of oral tradition and community values. Modern adaptations honor health and safety without compromising sacred traditions, symbolizing cultural resilience. Through the regulated practice of phases such as ukungena, ukuhamba ngebhoma, ukuphuma, umgidi, and ukusoka, Xhosa youth continue to embark on transformative journeys of personal and social development.
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Rituals surrounding umtshato (Xhosa marriage)
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Xhosa marriage, umtshato, is one that is filled with a number of customs and rituals which relate to the upkeep of Xhosa traditional practices. These rituals have been practiced for decades by the Xhosa people and have been incorporated into modern day Xhosa marriages as well. The purpose of the practices is to bring together two different families and to give guidance to the newly wed couple throughout.[18]
Ukuthwalwa
To start off the procedures the male intending to marry goes through Ukuthwalwa which entails him choosing his future bride and making his intentions of marriage known, however this practice was not done by all the tribes within the Xhosa people.[19] In modern day, the man and woman would most likely have been in courtship or a relationship prior to Ukuthwalwa. Decades before Ukuthwalwa would entail legal bridal abduction, where the man could choose a woman of his liking to be his bride and go into negotiations with the family of the bride without her knowledge or consent. She would have to abide to the marriage as per tradition.[20]
Isiduko
Following Ukuthwala, the man will then be in discussion with his parents or relatives to inform them of his choice in bride. During this discussion the clan name, isiduko, of the woman would be revealed and researched.[18] If it were found that the woman and the man share the same clan name they would not be allowed to proceed with the marriage as it is said that people with the same clan name are of the same relation and cannot be wed.[21]
Ikhazi
Once discussions with the family are complete and satisfactory information about the woman is acquired then the family of the man will proceed to appoint marriage negotiators. It is these very negotiators that will travel to the family of the woman to make known the man and his intentions. Once the negotiators reach the family of the woman they will be kept in the kraal, inkundla, of the woman's family. If the family does not possess a kraal they will simply be kept outside the household as they will not be allowed to enter the household without the acknowledgment and acceptance of the woman's family. It is here where the lobola (dowry) negotiations will begin. The family of the woman will give them a bride-price and a date for which they must return to pay that price. The bride-price is dependent on numerous things such as her level of education, the wealth status of her family in comparison to that of the man's family, what the man stands to gain in the marriage and the overall desirability of the woman. The payment of the bride-price could be in either cattle or money depending on the family of the woman. The modern Xhosa families would rather prefer money as most are situated in the urban cities where there would be no space nor permits for livestock.[22]
Upon return of the man's family on the given date, they will pay the bride-price and bring along gifts of offering such as livestock and alcoholic beverages, iswazi, to be drunk by the family of the bride. Once the lobola from the man's negotiators is accepted then they will be considered married by the Xhosa tradition and the celebrations would commence. These include slaughtering of the livestock as a grateful gesture to their ancestors as well as pouring a considerable amount of the alcoholic beverages on the ground of the bride's household to give thanks to their ancestors. The groom's family is then welcomed into the family and traditional beer, Umqombothi, will be prepared for the groom's family as a token of appreciation from the bride's family.
Ukuyalwa
To solidify their unity the family of the bride will head to the groom's household where the elders will address her with regards to how to carry herself and dress appropriately at her newly found household, this is called Ukuyalwa.[18] Furthermore, a new name will also be given to her by the women of the groom's family and this name signifies the bond of the two families.
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Xhosa burial practices
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Burial practices and customs include a specific sequence of events and rituals which need to be performed in order to regard a funeral as dignified. Once the family has been notified that a member has died, the extended family comes together in preparation for the burial of the deceased.
The "umkhapho" (to accompany) ritual is performed in order to accompany the spirit of the deceased to the land of the ancestors. The local male clan leader or his proxy is the one who facilitates the process. The purpose of umkhapho is to keep the bonds between the deceased person and the bereaved alive so that the deceased may be able to return later and communicate as an ancestor. During this ritual, an animal such as a goat is slaughtered. A larger animal like a cow may also be slaughtered for an important person like a head of the family whilst a goat without a blemish may be slaughtered for others.
Further customs include the emptying the main bedroom of the bereaving family, known as 'indlu enkulu'. This room is where most of the last respects will be paid by family and friends. The emptying of the room is done in order to create space for extended family members to be able to mourn in the main room. The first family members and/or neighbours to arrive arrange the main bedroom to accommodate this seating arrangement by placing a traditional grass mat (ukhukho) or mattress on the floor.
Mourners do not require an invitation to attend a funeral and everyone who can and would like to attend is welcome. This means that the bereaved family has to cater for an unknown number of mourners. Traditionally, mourners were fed with 'inkobe', which is boiled dried corn and water, and the corn was taken from the family food reserves as well as donated by family members and neighbours. In the 21st century, it is regarded as taboo to feed mourners with 'inkobe' and, as a result of shame, funeral catering has become a lucrative business for the industry during burial events.
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On the day of burial, before extended family members disperse to their homes, the ukuxukuxa (cleansing) ritual occurs and a goat or sheep or even a fowl is slaughtered.[23][24]
A cleansing ritual is done the day after the burial, in which the bereaved women of the family go to the nearest river to wash all the materials and blankets that were used by the deceased before death. Furthermore, the clothes of the deceased are removed from the house and the family members shave their hair. The shaving of hair is an indication that life continues to spring up even after death.[25]
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Traditional diet
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The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory, including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.
Traditional foods include beef (Inyama yenkomo), mutton (Inyama yegusha), and goat meat (Inyama yebhokwe), sorghum, milk (often fermented, called "amasi"), pumpkins (amathanga), Mielie-meal (maize meal), samp (umngqusho), beans (iimbotyi), vegetables, like "rhabe", wild spinach reminiscent of sorrel, "imvomvo", the sweet sap of an aloe, or "ikhowa", a mushroom that grows after summer rains.[26]
Xhosa wedding
- Amaceba, slices of unpeeled pumpkins that are cooked in plenty of water.
- Amarhewu or mageu, soft and sour porridge
- Iinkobe, peeled off fresh maize grains, and boiled until cooked. It is eaten as a snack, preferably with salt.
- Isidudu, a soft porridge made mealie meal. It is usually served for breakfast, with sugar and milk.
- Intyabontyi, a citron melon with white insides, eaten either raw or cooked.
- Isophi, corn with beans or peas soup
- Umcuku, fermented porridge [amarhewu], sour, slightly soft than porridge itself, mixed with dry pap [umphokoqo]; was popular in the 1900s.
- Umleqwa, a dish made with free-range chicken.
- Umngqusho, a dish made from white maize and sugar beans, a staple food for the Xhosa people.
- Umphokoqo, crumble pap
- Umqombothi, a type of beer made from fermented maize and sorghum.
- Umvubo, (Amasi)sour milk mixed with umphokoqo, commonly eaten by the Xhosa.
- Umbhako, a loaf of bread, commonly made with homemade dough. Normally round, from baking pots
- Umfino, Wild Spinach/Cabbage called imifino, spinach mixed with mealie meal.
- Umqa, a dish made of pumpkin and mielie meal (maize meal)
- Umxoxozi, a pumpkin that is cooked before it is fully ripened.
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Art
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Traditional crafts include bead-work, weaving, woodwork and pottery.
Traditional music features drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, mouth harps, and stringed-instruments and especially group singing accompanied by hand clapping.[citation needed] There are songs for various ritual occasions; one of the best-known Xhosa songs is a wedding song called "Qongqothwane", performed by Miriam Makeba as "Click Song #1". Besides Makeba, several modern groups record and perform in Xhosa. Missionaries introduced the Xhosa to Western choral singing.[citation needed] "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", part of the National anthem of South Africa is a Xhosa hymn written in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga.
The first newspapers, novels, and plays in Xhosa appeared in the 19th century, and Xhosa poetry is also gaining renown.[27]
Several films have been shot in the Xhosa language. U-Carmen eKhayelitsha is a modern remake of Bizet's 1875 opera Carmen. It is shot entirely in Xhosa, and combines music from the original opera with traditional African music. It takes place in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha. The movie Black Panther also features the Xhosa language.
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Xhosa beadwork
Beads are small round objects made of glass, wood, metal, nutshell, bone seed and the likes, which are then pierced for stringing.[28] Before glass beads were introduced, people used natural materials to make beads. Xhosa people relied on the San to sell beads to them through trade or barter exchange. Xhosa people would give hemp to the San in exchange for beads. The beads made by the San were made out of ostrich egg shells which were chipped to small size, bored and polished and strung into sinews. Producing them took a long time, so they were scarce, highly priced, valued and in demand. It is recorded that it was only in the 1930s that the Portuguese introduced glass beads through trade.[29]
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Xhosa beadwork and its symbolism
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Adornments serve a particular purpose across different cultures as social markers. They are used to ascertain where one belongs to with regards to identity, history and geographical location. They reveal personal information with regards to age and gender and social class as some beads were meant to be worn by royalty. Beadwork creates a sense of belonging and cultural identity and traditions hence people draw their cultural ways of living and meanings, as Xhosa people use them as social markers. Xhosa people believe that the beads also create a link between the living and the ancestors as diviners use them during rituals. Thus beads have some spiritual significance.[29]
Social identities/markers with regards to age, gender, grade, marital status, social rank or role and the spiritual state can be ascertained through Xhosa beadwork. Symbolic references are drawn from the beads through the colour, pattern, formation and motifs. However, it ought to be taken into cognisance that some of these messages are limited to a certain group or between two people. In Xhosa culture beads represent the organisational framework of the people and the rites of passage that people have gone through as the beads are representative of the stages of one's life. Motifs on the beads often used include trees, diamonds, quadrangles, chevrons, triangles, circles, parallel lines that form a pattern that is exclusive to certain age groups. Although the beadwork has some cultural significance with certain motifs having exclusive meanings, the creator of the beadwork has creative control and can create and draw meaning from individual preference. Thus the meanings drawn from the beadwork are not rigidly set.[29]
Among the Thembu (a tribe in the Eastern Cape often erroneously referred to be a Xhosa tribe), after circumcision, the men wore, and still wear, skirts, turbans and a wide bead collar. A waistcoat, long necklaces, throat bands, armbands, leggings and belts are part of his regalia. The dominant colours in the beadwork are white and navy blue, with some yellow and green beads symbolising fertility and a new life, respectively.[29] Xhosa people regard white as the colour of purity and mediation; white beads are still used as offerings to spirits or to the creator. Amagqirha/diviners use white beads when communicating with the ancestors . These diviners also carry with them beaded spears, which are associated with the ancestors that inspire the diviner; beaded horns; and calabashes, to hold medicinal products or snuff. "Amageza", a veil made of beads, is also part of their regalia, they use these beads by swaying them in someone's eyes so as to induce a trance-like state.[29]
Inkciyo is a beaded skirt that serves as a garment covering the pubic area.[30] Among the Pondo people (Xhosa clan) the beads are turquoise and white in colour. This skirt is worn during a virginity testing ceremony among Xhosa people undergoing their rites of passage into womanhood.[31]
Impempe is a whistle that has a necklace on it. The whistle symbolises one's introduction to adolescence.[32]
Xhosa beadwork and other cultural beadworks have cultural ties, but nowadays beads are also worn as fashion pieces, too, either as cultural appreciation or appropriation. The use of cultural beadworks as fashion pieces means that anyone can wear these pieces without having to belong to that cultural group.[33]
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Clothing
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The Xhosa culture has a traditional dress code informed by the individuals social standing portraying different stages of life. The 'red blanket people' (Xhosa people) have a custom of wearing red blankets dyed with red ochre, the intensity of the colour varying from tribe to tribe. Other clothing includes beadwork and printed fabrics. Although in general, Xhosa lifestyle has been adapted to Western traditions, the Xhosa people still wear traditional attire for special cultural activities. The various tribes have their own variations of traditional dress which includes the colour of their garments and beadwork. This allows for different Xhosa groups to be able to be distinguishable from one another due to their different styles of dress. The Gcaleka women, for instance, encase their arms and legs in beads and brass bangles and some also wear neck beads.[34]
Women
Unmarried women often wear wraps tied around their shoulders, leaving their breasts exposed. Engaged women redden their plaited hair and let it screen their eyes, this was done as a sign of respect for their fiancés. Xhosa women wear some form of headdress to cover their heads as a sign of respect to the head of the family which is either their father or husband. Elderly Xhosa women are allowed to wear more elaborate headpieces because of their seniority.
Description
- Incebetha is a small blanket that is used as a bra. It is pinned or adorned with beads. The process of making 'incebetha' is called 'uRhaswa'.
- 'Ifulu' is a garment that is worn underneath, below the belt. 'Ifulu' is covered by the 'isikhakha' or 'umbhaco' and is made of a blanket. It is also adorned with beads through 'urhaswa'.
- 'Iqhiya' is a cloth that is fitted to the head and covered with beads. Women then wear a small and light weight blanket on the waist called 'uxakatha'.
- Women make bracelets with beads, called 'intsimbi' or 'amaso', which they wear on their feet. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is also worn around the waist. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is made with small wires or flexible material. 'Imitsheke' is worn on the wrist. A small hand bag is worn called 'ingxowa'.[35]
Men
Xhosa men traditionally filled the roles as hunters, warriors and stockman, therefore animal skin forms an important part of their traditional wear. Men often wear goatskin bags in which to carry essentials such as tobacco and a knife. The bag is usually made from skin that had been removed in one piece, cured without removing the hair, and turned inside out. On special occasions such as weddings or initiation ceremonies, Xhosa men wear embroidered skirts with a rectangular cloth over the left shoulder alternatively, a tunic and strands of beaded necklaces can be worn.[36]
Description
Men wear 'ingcawa' a white and black blanket, adorned with 'ukurhaswa'. Men wear beads around their neck. 'Isichebe' is a short bead while 'Isidanga' is a long bead necklace with different colors. Men wear beads around their wrists and foot called 'amaso'. Beads that are worn on the head are called 'unngqa' or 'igwala'. Men smoke pipes that are decorated by 'ukurhaswa'. The traditional smoking pipes are called 'umbheka phesheya'.[37][34]
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Xhosas in modern society
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 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2011) |
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Xhosa people as of 2011 made up approximately 18% of the South African population. The Xhosa are the second largest cultural group in South Africa, after the Zulu people.[38]
Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30%,[citation needed] and in 1996[update] studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%.[39] There have been advances since then, however.[citation needed]
Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in Xhosa, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level. Most of the students at Walter Sisulu University and University of Fort Hare speak Xhosa. Rhodes University in Grahamstown, additionally, offers courses in Xhosa for both mother-tongue and non-mother-tongue speakers. These courses both include a cultural studies component. Professor Russel H. Kaschula, Head of the School of Languages at Rhodes, has published multiple papers on Xhosa culture and oral literature.[citation needed]
The effects of government policies during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.[citation needed]
After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town has become increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa people.[40]
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Notable Xhosa
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
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