Greater Binanderean languages

The Greater Binanderean or Guhu-Oro languages are a language family spoken along the northeast coast of the Papuan Peninsula – the "Bird's Tail" of New Guinea – and appear to be a recent expansion from the north. They were classified as a branch of the Trans–New Guinea languages by Stephen Wurm (1975) and Malcolm Ross (2005), but removed (along with the related Goilalan languages) by Timothy Usher (2020).^[2] The Binandere family proper is transparently valid; Ross connected it to the Guhu-Semane isolate based on pronominal evidence, and this has been confirmed by Smallhorn (2011). Proto-Binanderean (which excludes Guhu-Samane) has been reconstructed in Smallhorn (2011).

Greater Binanderean
Guhu-Oro
Geographic distribution	Oro Province and parts of southern Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea
Linguistic classification	Binanderean–Goilalan[1] Greater Binanderean
Subdivisions	Binanderean (Oro) Guhu-Samane
Language codes
Glottolog	bina1276
Map: The Greater Binanderean languages of New Guinea   Greater Binanderean languages   Trans–New Guinea languages   Other Papuan languages   Austronesian languages   Uninhabited

Language contact

There is evidence that settlements of people speaking Oceanic languages along the Binanderean coast were gradually absorbed into inland communities speaking Binanderean languages (Bradshaw 2017). For instance, the SOV word order of Papuan Tip languages is due to Binanderean influence.^[3]

Korafe displays significant influence from Oceanic languages. Meanwhile, Maisin, spoken in Oro Province, is an Oceanic language with very heavy Binanderean influence and shows characteristics typical of mixed languages.^[3]

Spoken in Morobe Province, Guhu-Samane is divergent, which may be due to extensive historical contact with Oceanic languages such as Numbami.^[3]

Classification

Greater Binanderean consists of the Guhu-Samane language and the Binanderean languages proper. Smallhorn (2011:444) provides the following classification:

• Greater Binanderean
  • Guhu-Samane
  • Binanderean
    • Yekora
    • North Binanderean
      • Suena
      • Zia
    • Nuclear Binanderean
      • Binandere
      • South Binanderean
        • Orokaivic
          • Aeka (Northern Orokaiva)
          • Orokaiva
          • Hunjara (Mountain Orokaiva)
        • Coastal Binanderean
          • Notu-Yega (Ewage)
          • Gaena-Korafe
          • Baruga

However, South Binanderean and Nuclear Binanderean are non-genealogical linkages. Usher (2020), who calls the Binanderean languages proper "Oro" after Oro Province, classifies them very similarly, apart from not reproducing the non-cladistic linkages:^[2]

• Guhu–Oro (= Greater Binanderean)
  • Guhu-Samane
  • Oro (= Binanderean)
    • Binandere
    • Yekora
    • Ewage-Notu
    • Suena–Zia (= North Binanderean)
      • Suena
      • Zia
    • Central Oro (= Orokaivic)
      • Aeka
      • Orokaiva
      • Hunjara
    • Southeast Oro (= Coastal Binanderean, minus Ewage-Notu)
      • Baruga
      • Gaina–Korafe
        • Gaina
        • Korafe-Yegha

Demographics

Smallhorn (2011:3) provides population figures for the following Binanderean languages.

• Guhu-Samane: 12,800
• Suena: 3,000
• Yekora: 1,000
• Zia: 3,000
• Mawae: 943
• Binandere: 7,000 (including Ambasi)
• Aeka: 3,400
• Orokaiva: 24,000
• Hunjara: 8,770
• Notu: 12,900 (including Yega)
• Gaena: 1,410
• Baruga: 2,230
• Doghoro: 270
• Korafe: 3,630

Total

about 80,000

Proto-language

Pronouns

Ross (2005) reconstructs both independent pronouns and verbal person prefixes:

sg.	pronoun	prefix
1	*na	*a-
2	*ni	*i-
3	*nu	*u-

Only 1sg continues the Trans-New Guinea set.

Vocabulary

The following selected reconstructions of Proto-Binanderean and other lower-level reconstructions are from the Trans-New Guinea database:^[4]

gloss	Proto-Binandere	Proto-North-Binandere	Proto-Nuclear-Binandere
head	*ciro; *giti
hair	*tu
ear		*doŋgarә	*onje
eye	*dibe; *diti
nose		*mendә
tooth	*di
tongue	*VwVwV
dog	*sinә
pig	*pu
bird			*ndi
egg	*munju
blood	*ju; *or{a,o}rә
bone	*bobo; *wetu
skin	*tamә
breast	*ami
tree	*i
man	*embә
woman	*bam{u,o}nә		*ewVtu
sky	*utu
sun	*iji; *waeko	*wari
moon	*inua		*kariga
fire	*awo
stone	*g{o,e}mb{a,i}(ro)	*daba	*ganuma
road, path	*begata; *esa; *ndai
name	*jajo; *jawә
eat	*ind-; *mind-
one	*daba

Evolution

See also: Binandere language § Evolution

Greater Binanderean reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:^[5]

Binandere language:

• birigi ‘lightning’ < *(m,mb)elak
• mendo ‘nose’ < *m(i,u)undu
• mundu ‘kidney, testicles’ < *mundun ‘internal organs’
• (gisi)-moka ‘eye’ < *(kiti)-maŋgV
• mu ‘sap’ < *muk ‘sap, milk’
• ami ‘breast’ < *amu
• kopuru ‘head’ < *kV(mb,p)(i,u)tu
• ji ‘teeth’ < *(s,)ti(s,t)i ‘tooth’
• kosiwa ‘spittle’, kosiwa ari- ‘to spit’ < *kasipa tV- ‘to spit’
• afa ‘father’ < *apa
• embo ‘man’ < *ambi
• izi ‘tree’ < *inda
• ganuma ‘stone’ < *ka[na]m(a,u)una
• tumba ‘darkness’ < *k(i,u)tuma ‘night’
• biriga ‘lightning’ < *(m,mb)elak ‘(fire)light’
• (aßa)-raka ‘fire’ < *la(ŋg,k)a ‘ashes’
• ni ‘bird’ < *n[e]i
• na- ‘eat, drink’ < *na-
• put- ‘to blow’ < *pu + verb
• tupo ‘short’ < *tu(p,mb)a[C]

Korafe language:

• munju ‘egg’ < *mundun ‘internal organs’
• soso ‘urine’ < *sisi
• aßa-raka ‘burning stick’ < *la(ŋg,k)a ‘ashes’
• mut- ‘give’ < *mV-
• niŋg- ‘hear, understand’ < *nVŋg- ‘know’

Suena language:

• boga-masa ‘destitute’ < *mbeŋga-masi ‘orphan, widow and child’
• mia ‘mother’ < *am(a,i)
• tumou ‘night’ < *k(i,u)tuma
• ma ‘taro’ < *mV
• asi ‘netbag’ < *at(i,u)

Yega language:

• kari ‘ear’ < *kand(e,i)k(V]

Phonotactics

Like the Koiarian languages, Binanderean languages only allow for open syllables and do not allow final CVC.^[5]: 87