List of massacres in Nigeria

The following is a list of massacres that have occurred in Nigeria:

Lists of massacres

This article contains dynamic lists that may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Note: below categories may be imprecise and somewhat overlap. Reports sometimes misattribute motivation as well as the attacks possibly having mixed/multiple motivations. For example, a communal conflict between herders and farmers may appear motivated by religion and thus be categorized as "religious massacre" because of the religion of the involved parties.

Political and religious motivated massacres

See also: Religious violence in Nigeria See also: Yan Tatsine and Kano riot

Name	Date	Deaths	Involved	Location – Circumstances
1953 Kano riot	1953	~46	political/ethnic riot	conflicts between pro- vs anti- independence groups with political parties which also happened to largely sort into Southern vs Northern (Ibo/ Yoruba vs Hausa ethnicity), Christian vs Muslim etc..
Tiv Riots	1960-1964	2,000–4,000	Various groups	Benue State (since 1976), Northern region, Benue valley – Occurred during protests for the creation of Benue state from the Northern region[1]
1966 Anti-Igbo pogrom	July and August 1966	8000-30,000[2]	Nigerian Army, Hausa-Fulani and others	Northern Nigeria – Targeted killings of Igbo people in Northern Nigeria in revenge for the coup of January 15, 1966.[3]
Asaba massacre	October 7, 1967	Up to 500 men[4]	Nigerian 2nd Division	Delta State, Asaba – Occurred during the Nigerian-Biafran War[5][6]
Ugep Massacre	December 24, 1975	65>	Nigerian Army	Cross River State, Ugep – Occurred after soldiers accused towns people of murdering a drunk soldier[7]
Bakolori Massacre	March 28, 1980[clarification needed]	380	Police	Zamfara State, Bakolori – The government of the defunct Sokoto State wanted to build a dam in Bakolori, (Bakolori Dam) and offered to resettle the people. They refused and the police moved in to forcefully resettle them.[8]
1980 Yan Tatsine riots	Dec 18-29, 1980	est. 4,177 civilians, 100 police, 35 military	religious insurgency	instigated by Maitatsine and his followers in Kano
Umuechem Massacre	November 1, 1990	~85	Police	Rivers State, Umuechem – After a protest at Shell's office by youths of the town demanding for electricity, water, roads and compensation following environmental degradation, the police moved in and massacred the town.[9]
Odi massacre	November 20, 1999	43[10]-2,500[11]	Nigerian Army	Bayelsa State, Odi – Nigerian military attacked the village of Odi, as part of the Conflict in the Niger Delta.
2000 Kaduna riots also known as the first "Sharia clashes".	Sharia 1: February 21–25, 2000; March Sharia 2: May 22–23, 2000	2,000[12][13]–5,000[14]	Christians, Muslims	Kaduna State, Kaduna – Religious riots between Christians and Muslims over the introduction of sharia law in Kaduna State, start of the religious riots phase of the Sharia conflict in Nigeria.
2001 Jos riots	September 9–17, 2001	500–5000[15]	Christians, Muslims	Plateau State, Jos – Religious riots between Christians and Muslims.
Zaki Biam Massacre	October 20–24, 2001	Over 200[16]	Nigerian Army	Benue State – Attack by the Nigerian Army avenging the kidnapping and killing of 19 soldiers by suspected Tiv militia[17]
Miss World riots	November 22, 2002	200+[18]	Islamists, later rioting Christians and Muslims	Kaduna State, Kaduna – Inter-religious riots that started on 22 November in Kaduna, along with many houses of worship being burned by religious zealots. Cause: article in Thisday about the 2002 Miss World beauty contest (to be held in Abuja), in which Muslims took offence.
Yelwa massacre	February–May, 2004	c. 975[19]	Christians, Muslims	Yelwa, Shendam and Kano – Religiously motivated killings between Christians and Muslims.
Muhammad cartoons crisis	February 18, 2006	50+[20]	Muslims	Borno State, Maiduguri – The international crisis reached the Nigerian city of Maiduguri, in which over 50 people were killed and many buildings destroyed or damaged by rioting Muslims, outraged because of cartoons about Muhammad in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten.
2008 Ogaminana massacre	February 26, 2008	over 50	Police	Kogi State, Ogaminana – Police descended on Ogaminana at 8.30 pm, killing and brutalizing mostly elderly men, women and children in a reprisal attack that has sent shock and outrage throughout the country.[21]
2008 Jos riots	November 28–29, 2008	381[22]	Christians, Muslims	Plateau State, Jos – Religious riots between Christians and Muslims over the result of a local election.
2009 Boko Haram uprising	July, 2009	1,000+[23]	Islamists	Maiduguri, Bauchi, Potiskum, Wudil – Militants killed over a thousand people between 26 and 29 July; during the violence[24]
2010 Jos riots	2010	992	Christians, Muslims	Plateau State, Jos – Religious rioting.[25]
2011 Abuja United Nations bombing	August 26, 2011	116[26]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Federal Capital Territory, Abuja – 312 injured; Boko Haram attacked a United Nations compound[26]
2011 Damaturu attacks	November 4, 2011	100-150[27]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Yobe State, Damaturu – Islamic militants associated with Boko Haram attacked police stations and banks.
December 2011 Nigeria clashes	December 2011	68+[28]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Maiduguri and Damaturu – Militants associated with Boko Haram clashed with security forces between 22 and 23 December.
December 2011 Northern Nigeria attacks	December 25, 2011	41+[29]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Federal Capital Territory, Madalla – 73 injured;Militants bombed a Catholic church.
January 5–6, 2012 Nigeria attacks	January 5–6, 2012	37+[30]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Mubi, Yola, Gombi, and Maiduguri – Terrorists attacked communities; Boko Haram claimed responsibility.
January 20, 2012 Nigeria attacks	January 1, 2012	185[31]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Kano State, Kano – Terrorists attacked government installations including police stations and barracks, Immigration offices etc.; Boko Haram claimed responsibility.
April 2012 Kaduna bombings	March 8, 2012	38[32]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Kaduna State, Kaduna – Terrorists bombed a community.[32]
June 2012 Kaduna church bombings	June 7, 2012	12[33]-19[34]	Islamists (Boko Haram) suspected	Kaduna State, Wusasa, and Sabon Gari – 80 injured; Islamic terrorists bombed three churches.
Deeper Life Church shooting	August 7, 2012	19[35]	Three unidentified gunmen	Kogi State, Okene – Militants attacked a community.
December 2012 shootings in Northern Nigeria	December 25, 2012	27[36][37]	Islamists (Boko Haram) suspected	Federal Capital Territory, Abuja – Militants attacked a community.
2013 Baga massacre	April 19–20, 2013	228+[38]	Nigerian army or Boko Haram	Borno State, Baga – Identity of the perpetrators remains unclear; some blame the Nigerian military while others blame the Islamic terrorist group Boko Haram.[39]
Mamudo school massacre, also known as Yobe State school shooting	July 6, 2013	30[40]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Yobe State, Mamudo government secondary school – Suspected Boko Haram terrorists killed at least 41 children and one teacher.[41]
Benisheik massacre	September 18, 2013	159	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State
Gujba college massacre	September 29, 2013	50[42]	Islamists (Boko Haram) suspected	Yobe State, Gujba Yobe school – At 1:00 a.m. suspected gunmen from Boko Haram entered the male dormitory in the College of Agriculture in Gujba, killing at least forty-four students and teachers.[40]
Kawuri massacre	January 11, 2014	85[43]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Konduga Local Government – Attack by Boko Haram.
February 2014 Konduga massacre	February 2, 2014	39	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Konduga – About 39 people are believed to have been killed in an attack by Militants on a Nigerian town. Local residents said the attack on Konduga, Borno, lasted several hours, beginning shortly before sundown with the arrival of gunmen in 4x4 trucks. A mosque and more than 1,000 homes were razed to the ground, residents said.[44]
Izghe attack	February 15, 2014	106	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State
Federal Government College Buni Yadi attack	February 25, 2014	59	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Yobe State, Federal Government College Buni Yadi – Islamist gunmen killed 59 students at a boarding school in Yobe State.[45]
April 2014 Nyanya bombing	April 14, 2014	71	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Federal Capital Territory, Abuja – Two bombs exploded in a crowded bus station in the outskirts of Abuja, Nigeria.[46]
2014 Gamboru Ngala massacre	May 6, 2014	300+[47]	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Gamboru – Militants attacked at night and set houses ablaze. When people tried to escape, they were shot dead.[48]
Gwoza massacre	June 2, 2014	200-300[49]	Islamists (Boko Haram) suspected	Borno State, Gwoza – Boko Haram attack on Christian villagers
2014 Kano bombing	June 23, 2014	200+	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Kano State, Kano – Dozens of people were killed in a bomb blast at Kano State School of Hygiene. The blast was attributed to militant group Boko Haram by the locals.[50]
Zaria Quds Day massacres	July 25–26, 2014	34 [51]	Nigerian Army	Kaduna State, Zaria
2015 Baga massacre	January 3–7, 2015	At least 100, over 2,000 "unaccounted for"	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Baga
2015-2016 Killing of Biafran Protesters	August 30, 2015 to February 9, 2016	80+	Nigerian Army, Nigerian security forces	Anambra State (Onitsha), Abia State (Aba) and Igboland – Over 80 protesters agitating for the secession of the Biafran region from Nigeria have been killed en masse by Nigerian security operatives, while more than 400 others have been arrested, detained or imprisoned[52]
2015 Zaria massacre	December 12–13, 2015	700-1000	Nigerian Army	Kaduna State, Zaria – Nigerian army open fire on the Shiite minority when they were conducting a religious procession.[53][unreliable source?]
Dikwa suicide bombings	February 9, 2016	60+	Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, 2 female Boko Haram suicide bombers	Borno State, Dikwa, refugee camp – Five suicide bombers infiltrated the camp disguised as refugees. Two set off their bombs as internally displaced persons were queuing for rations. More than 60 were killed and 78 others injured.
2019 Konduga bombings	June 16, 2019	30+	Suicide bombers (3)	Borno State, Konduga Local Government Area – A series of suicide bombings killed at least 30 civilians and injured at least 40.[54][55]
2020 Gamboru bombing	January 6, 2020	38	Suicide bombers	Borno State, Gamboru – The attack killed 38 and injured 30.
Lekki toll gate "End SARS" massacre	October 20, 2020 6:50pm	More than 12 dead, hundreds severely injured according to Amnesty International, disputed by government.[56][57] Also, few people were still missing days after the massacre. A development which backed up the claim by eyewitnesses that the army took some corpses after the shooting.	Nigerian Army	Lagos State, Lekki Toll Gate – Nigerian army opened fire on peaceful protesters at the Lekki Toll Gate while they were peacefully seated, singing the National anthem and proudly waving their flags.
Koshebe massacre	November 28, 2020	76	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Jere, Maiduguri – Boko Haram fighters massacred 76 farmers. The attacks were carried out in retribution for farmers cooperating with the Nigerian military.[58]
2022 Plateau State massacres	April 10, 2022	150+	Fulani bandits from Kaduna State	Plateau State, 9 villages in the Kanam and Wase local government areas.
Owo church attack	5 June 2022	40-80 estimated	Islamists / herdsmen	mass shooting and bomb attack of Catholic church in Owo, Ondo State.
2023 Plateau State massacres	December 23–25, 2023	~200	Fulani militia suspected	Plateau State, 17 rural communities in the regions of Bokkos and Barkin Ladi.
2024 Konduga massacre	August 1, 2024	19	Islamists (Boko Haram)	Borno State, Konduga Local Government Area – About 19 civilians were killed and dozens injured in a suicide bombing.[59]
2024 Gwoza bombings	June 29, 2024	32	Suicide bombers (3+)	Borno State, Gwoza
Tarmuwa massacre	September 3, 2024	130	Islamists	Yobe State
2025 Lake Chad massacre	January 14, 2025	40–100+	Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP) or Boko Haram (reports vary)	Borno State, Dumba, Lake Chad region – Jihadists executed farmers from the region of Gwoza and fishermen. Lake Chad is used as a base by Boko Haram and ISWAP. [60][61]
2025 Plateau State massacres	March 24 and 27, April 2 and 13, 2025	126	Muslim Fulani	Plateau State, Ruwe, Bokkos, Kimakpa and Zike – Organized attacks killed more than 100 people from Christian villages. Houses were burned and many people injured and raped. 7000 people fled from the violent attacks.[62][63][64][65]
Karim Lamido massacre	May 24, 2025	42	Muslim Fulani herdsmen	In Karim Lamido local government area of Taraba State, 42 killed (inc 24 United Methodists), 60 homes destroyed and 5000+ displaced [66][67][68]
Yelwata massacre	June 13-14, 2025	100–200+	Muslim Fulani herdsmen	Benue State, Yelewata – Gunmen attacked Christian villagers at the village of Yelewata, killing more than 100 people. A number of houses were set alight and destroyed in the attack.[69][70][71][72]

Bandit attacks

See also: Nigerian bandit conflict

Date	Deaths	Involved	Location – Circumstances
May 5, 2019	23	~100 bandits	Zamfara State, Kaura Namoda – 23 people were killed in a retaliatory attack by bandits on Tunga and Kabaje villages in Kaura Namoda LGA, after the death of their suspected ally.[73][74]
June 8-9, 2019	25	Large number of bandits, 4 were arrested	Sokoto State, Rabah – Kalhu, Tsage and Geeri villages in Rabah LGA were attacked by bandits during the night. The attack went on till morning, killing 25 people.[75][76]
June 9, 2019	16	Large number of bandits	Zamfara State, Maru – 16 people celebrating Eid al-Fitr were killed by unidentified bandits in Kanoma community of Maru LGA.[77][78]
June 9, 2019	18	Bandits, 4 were arrested	Sokoto State, Satiru – Satiru village of Sokoto state was attacked by bandits, killing 18 people.[79][80]
June 9, 2019	47 confirmed dead	Bandits	Niger State, Shiroro – Eight farming and herding villages in Shiroro LGA were attacked on 9 June by bandits, who also stole 525 cattle. Niger State Emergency Management Agency confirmed finding 47 corpses. Permanent Secretary of Niger State for cabinet and Security, Aliyu Isah Ekan, claimed only 12 have been killed.[81][79] Senator David Uamru had claimed 70 were killed.[82]
June 6, 2019	34	Bandits	Zamfara State, Shinkafi – Police confirmed deaths of 34 people in a bandit attack on Tungar Kafau and Gidan Wawa in Shinkafi LGA.[83]
April 18, 2020	47	Bandits	Katsina State – Mass murders and robberies in three locations. See also: April 2020 Katsina attacks
May 3-5, 2020	4	Fulani	Plateau State – Messiah College High School was closed due to COVID-19, but the attackers stormed the on-campus home of the school's leader. He was shot in the head, while his wife was shot in the back and his two children were shot in the feet. They survived the wounds.[84]
June 3, 2021	88	Dozens of bandits on motorcycles	Kebbi state – Cattle thieves attacked seven villages killing 88 people.[85]
June 5, 2021	50	Bandits	Oyo state – In Igangan village, a group of bandits invaded and killed 50 people.[86]
January 4-6, 2022	200+	Bandits	Zamfara State – Bandits launched a campaign of massacres on civilians, resulting in heavy casualties.
April 10, 2022	150+	Bandits	Plateau State – The 2022 Plateau State massacres are linked to the ongoing Nigerian bandit conflict.[87]
May 6, 2022	48	Bandits	Zamfara State – Bandits attacked the villages of Damri, Sabon Garin and Kalahe in Zamfara, killing at least 48 people.[88][89][90]

Herder-farmer conflicts and communal conflicts

See also: Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria and Communal conflicts in Nigeria

Name	Date	Deaths	Involved	Location – Circumstances
Herder-farmer conflict	June 25, 2018	86	Christian farmers and Muslim herders	Plateau State – Riots in Nigeria between Muslim herders and Christian farmers. Total 86 dead.[91]
Communal conflict	October 19, 2018	55	Christian Adara and Hausa Muslim youths	Kaduna State – A market dispute led to the deaths of two people. In return a communal conflict erupted, Adaras attacked Hausa, killing dozens. The riots left a total of 55 people dead.[92]
Communal conflict	January 16, 2019	Unknown	Jukun and Tiv attackers	Benue State, Guma – Many people were killed amidst a communal conflict between Jukun and Tiv people in Guma LGA of Benue State.[93][94]
Herder-farmer conflict	January 28, 2019	7 herders	Vigilantes	Zamfara State – Seven herders were burnt by a team of vigilantes alongside their cows.[95]
Herder-farmer conflict	February 4, 2019	26	Herders (suspected)	Zamfara State – 7 villages in Zamfara State were attacked and 26 killed in suspected revenge for killing of seven herders a week before.[95]
2019 Kaduna State massacre	February 10, 2019	141 (130 Fulani and 11 Adara)	Fulani herdsmen and Adara militia	Kaduna State, Kajuru – Part of the communal violence leading up to the 2019 election. The government said 130 Fulani were killed,. 11 Adara were also killed. Miyetti Allah said 66 Fulani were buried and 65 remain missing.[96][97][98][99]
Unnamed	February 20, 2019	17	Fulani herdsmen	Kaduna State, Ebete, Agatu – 17 people were killed in an attack by militants on Ebete in Agatu LGA of Benue State.[100][101]
Unnamed	February 26, 2019	40 Adara	Fulani herdsmen	Kaduna State, Karamai, Kajuru – At least 29 people were reported to be killed in an attack in Karamai community of Kajuru. The attack was suspected to be from Fulani in retaliation to the earlier violence where Fulani settlements were attacked. The governor confirmed a few days later that the death toll had risen to 40.[102][103]
Unnamed	March 2, 2019	16 farmers	Fulani herdsmen	Benue State, Gwer West – Herdsmen killed 16 in an attack on Gwer West LGA. The government blamed the attack on allegations of theft of cows by livestock guards made by the military. Residents said the herdsmen brought along many cattle and took over their lands for grazing after killing people.[104][105][106][107]
Unnamed	March 7, 2019	20 Bassa Kwomu	Egburra Mozum militia	Kogi State, Bassa – 20 Bassa Kwomu were killed in an attack by an Egburra Mozum militia in Bassa LGA, Kogi State.[108][109]
Unnamed	March 10, 2019	16-35	Adara Militants	Kaduna State, Aungwan Barde, Kajuru – Police have put the death toll at 16 in attack by suspected militants. However, the Adara Development Association has claimed an upwards of 35 killed.[110]
Unnamed	March 10, 2019	17	Unknown	Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari – 17 vigilantes were ambushed and killed by unidentified gunmen in the mainly Muslim area of Birnin Gwari as they stole cattle.[111][112][113]
Unnamed	March 11, 2019	16-52 Adara	Fulani herdsmen	Kaduna State, Maro, Kajuru – The police have put the death toll at 16 in an attack by suspected herdsmen in Kajuru. However, the Adara Development Association has claimed an upwards of 52 killed in Inkirimi and Dogonnoma villages in Maro. Another version of the attack by a source claimed 46 people were killed in Aungwan Gamu. The police have however not confirmed the claims.[114][110]
Unnamed	March 16, 2019	10 Adara	Fulani herdsmen	Kaduna State, Nandu-Gbok, Sanga LGA – 10 people were confirmed killed in Nandu-Gbok village of Sanga LGA after an attack by suspected Fulani herdsmen. Residents suspect it is in revenge for an earlier attack where they say at least 11 cows and 28 sheep belonging to Fulani were slaughtered in the same area before the election.[115][116]
Unnamed	March 17, 2019	4	Ikwo militias	Cross Rivers State, Biase – Four people were killed in an attack on communities of Biase LGA of Cross River State by Ikwo warlords in revenge for burning down of their communities.[117][118]
Unnamed	March 18, 2019	Several Agbaduma people	Militia hired by Egba, Abogbe and Ologba	Benue State, Agatu – Several persons were killed during a communal conflict that erupted over ownership of lands. The police has stated that militiamen hired by Egba, Abogbe and Ologba people attacked the Okokolo area inhabited by Agbaduma people.[119][120]
Unnamed	March 19, 2019	5-10	Militants	Benue State, Guma – The Nigerian police have said five people were recorded as having died in a suspected herdsman attack in Tse Ioreleegeb village, part of Guma LGA of Benue State. The Guma LGA chairman has claimed 10 were killed[121][122]
Communal conflict	March 19, 2019	5	Iceland group (suspected)	Rivers State, Khana – Five people were confirmed to have been killed by suspected Iceland group members in a cult attack on Kono Boue in Khana LGA. The cause is suspected to be retaliation for killing of their member.[123][124]
Communal conflict	March 26, 2019	5	Christian and Muslim youth	Plateau State, Jos North – Intercommunal violence occurred between Christian and Muslim youth. According to a resident, after the discovery of two dead boys from Angwan Miango over the past week at the border between it and Rikkos, a Hausa community, the people went on reprisal killings against Muslims.[125][126] Five people were killed as a result in the ensuing clashes.[127] Arewa Christians and Indigenous Pastors Association, however, claimed deaths of 30 Christians.[128] Federal Government of Nigeria has introduce RUGA settlement[usurped] to cub conflicts between the Herdsmen and Farmer in Plateau State.[129]
Communal conflict	April 12, 2020	12	Militants	Niger state, Shiroro County, Tegina Kabata – 12 people killed during the wedding with five people captured including the bride and groom.[130]
Odugbeho massacre	June 7, 2021	40+	Fulani herdsmen	Benue State
2021 Nasarawa massacre	December 20, 2021	50	Fulani herdsmen	Nasarawa State – At least 50 Tiv civilians were killed in Nasarawa state,[131] due to Fulani herdersmen blaming Tiv farmers for the killings of a kinsman.[132]
Owo church attack	May 5, 2022	50	ISWAP or Fulani herdsmen (disputed)	Ondo State – Over 50 people were killed in a massacre carried out in a Catholic Church on Pentecost Sunday.[133] The Government has blamed ISWAP for the murders, but locals suspect Fulani Herdsmen.
2023 Mangu violence	May 15-16, 2023	130–200+	Fulani herdsmen	Plateau State
Edo State Massacre	March 28, 2025	16	Mob	Edo State - Group of 16 Hausa hunters lynched by mob.
Bassa LGA, Plateau	Apr 14, 2025	40–51	herders	night attack by suspected herders in farming villages of Zike & Kimakpa (Bassa LGA)
Otukpo LGA, Benue State	Apr 18, 2025	11+	herders	suspected herdsmen attacks on Emichi, Odudaje, Okpamaju, Benue State (Vanguard link)
Guma, Logo, Ukum, Kwande LGAs	May 10, 2025	23	Herders	Separate but simultaneous attacks in four LGAs of Benue State (Vanguard )
Benue State – Tyolaha, Tse‑Ubiam, Ahume, Aondona	May 27, 2025	42 (10 killed in Tyolaha and Tse-Ubiam; 32 killed in Ahume and Aondona)	Herders	Coordinated weekend attacks attributed to itinerant herders in Gwer West local government area in Benue state. [134] [135]
Yelwata, Benue	June 14, 2025	45–200	Cattle herdsmen	Yelwata community in Benue State [136]
Wannune, Benue	June 20, 2025	??	Cattle herdsmen	Wannune community, Tarka LGA in Benue State [137]
Mangun District, Plateau State	June 20, 2025	14	suspected herders	Mostly children and the elderly killed and houses burnt in Juwan and Manja communities in Bokkos and Mangu LGAs of Plateau State by suspected herdsmen. [138]
Mangun District, Plateau State	June 21, 2025	12 killed, 22 injured	community vigilantes/mob	Mangun District of Mangu LGA of Plateau State. A group of out-of-town travellers enroute to a wedding were killed when they inadvertently lost their way and found themselves in a tense community that had endured repeated terror attacks, including the prior night. [139] [140]

See also

• Boko Haram insurgency
• Timeline of the Boko Haram insurgency
• Islamic extremism in Northern Nigeria

Literature

• Isaac Terwase Sampson, "Religious violence in Nigeria: Causal diagnoses and strategic recommendations to the state and religious communities", African Journal on Conflict Resolution (2012) p. 107-112.