Dzungar–Qing Wars

The Dzungar–Qing Wars (Mongolian: Зүүнгар-Чин улсын дайн, simplified Chinese: 准噶尔之役; traditional Chinese: 準噶爾之役; pinyin: Zhǔngá'ěr zhī Yì; lit. 'Dzungar Campaign') were a decades-long series of conflicts that pitted the Dzungar Khanate against the Qing dynasty and its Mongol vassals. Fighting took place over a wide swath of Inner Asia, from present-day central and eastern Mongolia to Tibet, Qinghai, and Xinjiang regions of present-day China. Qing victories ultimately led to the incorporation of Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang into the Qing Empire that was to last until the fall of the dynasty in 1911–1912, and the genocide of much of the Dzungar population in the conquered areas.

Dzungar–Qing Wars
The Dzungar army surrenders to the Qing dynasty after Dawachi is captured in 1756.[1]
Date 1687–1758 Location Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang Result Qing victory. Partial Dzungar decisive, full tactical & strategic victories Start of the Dzungar genocide Birth of “Xinjiang" The Kazakh Khanate expanded westward into former Dzungar pastures. Territorial changes Outer Mongolia, Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang conquered and added into the Qing Empire
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate	Qing dynasty Khalkha Mongols Kumul Khanate Khoshut Khanate Supported by: Kazakh Khanate
Commanders and leaders
Galdan Boshugtu Khan Tsewang Rabtan Galdan Tseren Queen Anu † Amursana	Kangxi Emperor Sun Ssu-k'o [zh][2][3][4] Tüsheet Khan Chakhundorji Abdullah Beg (額貝都拉) Yongzheng Emperor Yue Zhongqi[5] Tsering [zh] Nian Gengyao Qianlong Emperor Ming Rui Agui Emin Khoja

Background

See also: Northern Yuan, Qing dynasty in Inner Asia, and Dzungar conquest of Altishahr

After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, China's Mongol rulers withdrew to Mongolia and became known as the Northern Yuan. Over time, the Mongol state disintegrated into a series of Khanates, ruled by various descendants of Genghis Khan. The Qing dynasty defeated the Inner Chahar Mongol leader Ligdan Khan and annexed Inner Mongolia. While the Eastern Mongols (Outer and Inner Mongols) were ruled by Chingisids, the Oirats were ruled by the Choros clan. The Dzungar Oirats under Erdeni Batur and Zaya Pandita held a pan-Oirat-Mongol conference in 1640 with all Oirat and Mongol tribes participating except the Inner Mongols under Qing rule. The conference ended in failure. By the 1650s, the Dzungar Khanate, an Oirat state centered in Dzungaria and western Mongolia, had risen to become the preeminent khanate in the region and was often in conflict with Khalkha Mongols, the remnants of the Northern Yuan, of eastern Mongolia. Upon assuming the throne after the death of his brother Sengge in 1670, Galdan Boshugtu Khan launched a series of successful campaigns to expand his territory as far as present-day eastern Kazakhstan, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia. Through skillful diplomacy, Galdan maintained peaceful relations with the Qing dynasty while also establishing relations with Russia. However, when Galdan's brother Dorjijab was killed in a skirmish with troops loyal to the Khalkha khan in 1687, Galdan took the pretext to launch a full-scale invasion of eastern Mongolia. He destroyed several Khalkha tribes at the battle of Olgoi Nor (Olgoi Lake) in 1688, sending twenty thousand refugees fleeing south to Qing territory.^[6]

The Khalkha rulers, defeated, fled to Hohhot and sought Qing assistance.^[7] Meanwhile, the Qing had secured a peace treaty with the Cossacks on their northern border, who had previously been inclined to support Galdan. The Treaty of Nerchinsk prevented an alliance between Galdan and the Russians, leaving the Qing free to attack their Mongol rivals.^[8] Fearing a united Mongol state ruled by the hostile Dzungars, the Qing now turned their powerful war machine on the Oirats.^[9]

The Dzungars had conquered and subjugated the Uyghurs during the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr after being invited by the Afaqi Khoja to invade the Chingisid Chagatai ruled Yarkent Khanate. Heavy taxes were imposed upon the Uyghurs by the Dzungars, provoking resentment.^[10] This led to uprisings and Uyghur rebels from Turfan and Kumul who were rebelling against Dzungar rule joined the Qing in their war against the Dzungars. The Yarkent Khanate under Muhammad Amin Khan presented tribute to the Qing dynasty twice to request aid against the Dzungar attack.^[11]

The Dzungars used the Zamburak, camel mounted miniature cannons, in battle, notably at Ulan Butung.^[12] Gunpowder weapons like guns and cannons were deployed by the Qing and the Dzungars at the same time against each other.^[13]

First Dzungar-Qing War

First Dzungar – Qing War
Military camp of the Chinese Emperor at Kherlen River during the campaign of 1696
Date 1687–1697 Location Mongolia Result Partial Qing victory, Dzungar Khanate tactical and strategic victory, death of Galdan Boshugtu Khan.
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate' Supported by: Russian Empire	Qing dynasty Remnants of the Northern Yuan or Also known as the Khalkhas. (Vassal of the Qing) Kumul Khanate (Vassal of the Qing)
Commanders and leaders
Galdan Boshugtu Khan	Kangxi Emperor Chakhundorji Abdullah Beg
Strength
20,000–30,000[14]	100,000[14]
Casualties and losses
Possibly 5000 to 10'000 dead	Possibly 20'000 to 50'000 dead

The First Dzungar–Qing War was a military conflict fought from 1687 to 1697 between the Dzungar Khanate and an alliance of the Qing dynasty and the northern Khalkhas, remnants of the Northern Yuan dynasty. During the Manchu conquest of China, Southern Mongolia was incorporated into the Qing Empire. Around the same time, the Dzungar Khanate emerged in the western Mongolian lands .

Galdan’s Invasion of Khalkha (1688–1689)

In the 1680s, the Qing Empire succeeded in persuading some rulers of Khalkha-Mongolia to accept allegiance to the Manchu Emperor. This state of affairs worried the Dzungar ruler Galdan , who saw unification as the key to Mongol independence. In 1688, according to some historical reconstructions or oral traditions, he invaded Khalkha, sacked west Khalkha and defeated Tushetu Khan Chimid-Dorji on Tamir. In the ninth month of 1688, finding themselves with the remnants of their troops and people at the borders of the Qing Empire, Tushetu Khan and Bogd Gegeen I appealed to the Qing authorities to accept them as subjects along with all their people. Some Mongol rulers followed their example over the next year or two, frightened by the devastation of Khalkha wrought by Galdan; In addition, some of the Khalkhas went to Kukunor to the Oirats, ruled by the descendants of Gushi Khan , and some went to Russia .

The Qing State Council, after discussing the situation, concluded that Tushetu Khan had attacked the Oirats first and adopted a wait-and-see approach. Seeking to stall for time, the Manchus proposed that Tushetu Khan and Galdan resume peace negotiations, confident that the two sides would not reconcile. In 1689, the Manchu Emperor sought mediation from Tibet , offering Galdan Qing allegiance.

Intelligence and Preparations (Early 1690)

In early 1690, the Qing Empire sent a dignitary, Wenda, to Khalkha with the mission of secretly reconnoitering Galdan's situation. From his information, as well as from interrogating the Tibetan ambassador, Talai Kyanbu, at the Jiayuguan outpost, it became known that Galdan was in Kobdo , gathering troops for a campaign against Khalkha. However, his nephew, Tsewang-Rabdan , and Galdan's ex-wife, Atu Khatun, who had sided with Tsewang-Rabdan, had gradually resettled in Galdan's old lands. Many of Galdan's subjects were fleeing to Tsewang-Rabdan. Galdan's army, although numbering several thousand warriors, had very few horses. The scouts, confirming the Tibetan's information, reported that Galdan had two men riding one horse, and those who lacked weapons were cutting down trees to arm themselves.

The Qing authorities concluded that Galdan had decided to march into the southeastern regions of Khalkha; to retain his men, he was forced to allow them to plunder the Khalkhas. The Manchu emperor began preparing for war, primarily recruiting the Mongols under his command. In May 1690, it was decided that the Chahars would lead the vanguard , followed by the " Eight-Banner Army ," with military commanders ordered to increase the number of cannons in their units. The Khalkhas fighting on the Manchu side were permitted to order weapons from China.

Galdan's Early and Inner Mongolian Campaign (1690)

Since Galdan, clearly counting on Russian assistance, was moving down the Kerulen , the Russian representative in Beijing, Loshaninov, was informed that if Russia provided assistance to Galdan, it would be considered a violation of the 1689 peace treaty . The Qing ambassador, Songgotu , also declared the same in Nerchinsk . Therefore, when Ayuka-Darkhan-Khashka arrived with a letter from Galdan to the local voivode, Skripitsyn, he replied that he had no right to provide military personnel to assist Galdan's Oirats.

Fearing Galdan's invasion of Manchuria , the Qing authorities urgently prepared its western borders for defense, simultaneously deciding to launch a counterattack. After Tushetu Khan and Zanabazar submitted a request for their lands to be incorporated into the Qing Empire, the Manchu authorities considered the Khalkha to be their own, and Galdan's presence there constituted a violation of their borders. Galdan, having lost his ancestral home as a result of Tsewang-Rabdan's rebellion, had nowhere to go. Lacking the means to maintain an army, he could not abandon plunder. Having secured the submission of the Khalkha khans to the Qing Empire and concluded peace with Russia, Aisingyoro Xuanye firmly resolved to eliminate Galdan and personally led the campaign.

The war resulted from a Dzungar attack on the Northern Yuan dynasty based in Outer Mongolia, who were heavily defeated in 1688. Their rulers and twenty thousand refugees fled south to the Qing dynasty, which feared the growing power of the Dzungar state. Motivated by the opportunity to gain control over Mongolia and by the threat posed to them by a strong, unified Mongol state such as the Oirats threatened to form, the Qing sent their army north to subdue the Dzungars in 1690.^[15]

In the sixth month of 1690, two Qing armies set out on a campaign against Galdan. One marched from Manchuria toward the Kherlen River, the other from the south, from the area of the cities of Kalgan and Hohhot, toward the Tuul River . The campaign included Manchu-Chinese troops, as well as detachments of southern Mongols and Khalkha Mongols.

At that time, Galdan and his troops were camped on the Ulz River in northeastern Khalkha. Arani's corps attacked his camp on July 21, 1690 . The Oirats, using firearms, repelled the Qing troops, then attacked them from the flanks and defeated Arani. Arani retreated, and Galdan moved south to the Shara River region , where he plundered the nomadic camps of the Uzhumuqin.

Qing scouts attacked a Dzungar party north of the Great Wall. However, this proved to be the main Dzungar army, which destroyed the Qing detachment easily.^[16] A large Qing army under Prince Fuquan advanced North into Inner Mongolia, hoping to trap and crush the mobile Dzungar army. However, they were constrained by bad weather and difficult terrain. It took some Qing troops twelve days to cross the Gobi Desert, and the horses were left exhausted. Running low on supplies, the Qing finally confronted the Dzungars at Ulan Butung in September 1690. Although outnumbered 5 to 1, the Dzungars formed a camel wall, beat back a pair of artillery-supported Qing assaults, and escaped into the hills having won with strategy. The Qing commander claimed victory, but his failure to completely destroy the Dzungar forces led to his dismissal and early retirement.^[17] Galdan was left in control of Mongolia from the Selenga River in the north to Khalkhyn Gol in the south.^[18]

Pause

A pause in the conflict ensued. The Khalkha rulers declared themselves Qing vassals at Dolon Nor (the site of Shangdu, the pleasure palace of the Yuan Emperors) in 1691, a politically decisive step that officially ended the last remnants of the Yuan dynasty. It also allowed the Qing to assume the mantle of the Genghisid khans, merging the Khalkha forces into the Qing army.^[19] The Kangxi Emperor had now become determined to "exterminate" Galdan. Negotiations between the two sides bore little fruit. The Dzungars cast about for allies, making overtures to the Russians and various Mongol princes, but were rejected.^[20] Throughout the autumn of 1692, Galdan attempted to win over one of the rulers of Khalkha, but to no avail. In 1691–1692, Oirat embassies led by Zorikta-Khashka, Sunit, and others visited Irkutsk , Nerchinsk , and Tobolsk , while an embassy led by Achin-Khashka even visited Moscow . However, these embassies yielded no practical results for Galdan.^[21]

In the summer of 1693, the Manchu Emperor again offered Galdan Qing allegiance. By the end of 1693, people began defecting from Galdan to the Qing Empire. In the spring of 1694, Taiji Babai abandoned him . In the summer of 1695 , word leaked to China that Galdan was planning to break through to Tibet from Jiayuguan through the southern regions of Hami along the Kundelen-gol and Egyn river valleys. The Qing authorities immediately raised troops in Gansu Province to intercept him and completely destroy his army.

Defeat of Galdan Khan

In 1696, Kangxi prepared a major expedition against Galdan, organizing 1,333 supply carts, each carrying 6 shi of grain. Three armies advanced north: Fiyanggu commanded 30,000 troops (reinforced by 10,000), Kangxi personally led 32,000 men with 235 camel-mounted cannons, and a third army of 10,000 remained to the east and did not participate in the main campaign. The Dzungar army, weakened by plague and heavily outnumbered, confronted Fiyanggu’s forces at the Battle of Jao Modo in May 1696. Despite their mobility, Galdan’s troops were decisively defeated, suffering heavy losses from Qing artillery and musket fire,^[22] eventually breaking. Most of the Dzungar army was killed, captured, or scattered, leaving only 40–50 warriors. Galdan himself escaped thanks to a counterattack led by his wife, Queen Anu, who was killed during the battle.^[23] After the battle, Qing forces did not pursue a full-scale invasion but established blockades to contain Galdan in western Khalkha. His men, lacking yurts and livestock, faced severe hardship over the winter. In November 1696, Kangxi ordered the treasury to ransom Oirats captured or enslaved during the conflict and sent letters urging Galdan to submit to Qing rule, promising reunification with their families. By the winter of 1696–1697, Galdan was completely blockaded: Qing troops blocked his passage from the east and south, while Tsewang Rabdan’s forces held the west. Galdan died of plague in 1697^[9], leaving only a few loyal followers.^[24][25]

Aftermath

After the war, a Qing garrison was stationed in the area of present-day Ulaanbaatar, and Khalkha Mongolia was placed under Qing rule. Outer Mongolia was effectively incorporated into the Qing Empire. On the other hand, Tsewang Rabtan, a long-time anti-Galdan Oirat chief, who had actually provided intelligence to the Qing^[9] at several points during the war, succeeded Galdan as Khan of the Dzungars. While the Qing managed to sideline the Dzungar in the 1690s, they would not completely eradicate them until they defeated the Dzungars in subsequent wars several decades later.^[26]

Second Dzungar-Qing War, in Tibet

See also: Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)

Güshi Khan and the Establishment of Ganden Phodrang

Second Dzungar-Qing War
Part of Dzungar–Qing War
Date 1715-1720 Location Modern day Tibet, Turpan, Hami, Qinghai Result Dzungar victory, regained a significant portion of the territories lost in the first war. Qing Dynasty annexes Tibet starting Tibet under Qing rule Territorial changes Dzungars capture Turpan, Hami, Altai Mountains whilst Qing Dynasty gained Tibet and Qinghai through peace talks
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate	Qing dynasty Khoshut Khanate Polhanas (ally of Qing) Kangchennas (ally of Qing)
Commanders and leaders
Tsewang Rabtan Tagtsepa	Yinzheng, Kangxi's fourteenth son, commander-in-chief[27] Kangxi Emperor Yue Zhongqi[28] (descendant of Yue Fei) Polhané Sönam Topgyé Khangchenné Erentei † Lha-bzang Khan †
Strength
6000 to 20'000	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

In 1642, Güshi Khan, founder of the Khoshut Khanate, overthrew the prince of Tsang and made the 5th Dalai Lama the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet,^[29] establishing the regime known as Ganden Phodrang.

Dzungar Expansion and the Capture of Tibet (1715–1717)

In 1715, the Oirats captured Hami, an important strategic point on the route to the Qing Empire, and by the end of 1716, Tibet. At that time, Tibet had almost completely fallen under the influence of the Qing Emperor Kangxi. Tsewang Rabtan viewed this negatively. Tibet's moral influence in Mongolia was so great that Tsewang Rabtan could not bear to see it fall under Qing control. He decided to restore the influence of the Dzungar Khanate in Tibet. Taking advantage of the ongoing unrest and civil strife in Tibet and Kokonor, Tsewang Rabdan sent troops under the command of Tseren Dondoba the Elder to Lhasa , which captured the city in late 1717, deposed the pretender to the position of 7th Dalai Lama, Lha-bzang Khan, the last ruler of the Khoshut Khanate, and killed Lha-bzang Khan and his entire family. They also viciously destroyed a small force in the Battle of the Salween River which the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty had sent to clear traditional trade routes in 1718.^[30]

7th Dalai Lama pretender, Lha-bzang Khan

Qing Response and the 1720 Expedition

In response, an expedition sent by Kangxi Emperor, together with Tibetan forces under Polhané Sönam Topgyé of Tsang and Kangchennas (also spelled Gangchenney), the governor of Western Tibet,^[31][32] expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. Qing troops advanced into Tibet simultaneously from Kokonor and Sichuan , defeating the Oirats and recapturing Lhasa. The Oirats' Tibetan allies were executed, and the Qing allies established a temporary capital administration headed by the Manchu military leader Yanxin. Having restored Lhazang Khan's former supporters to power , the Qing government hastened to withdraw its troops from Tibet, leaving only a garrison in Lhasa and small garrisons to guard the road from Lhasa to Sichuan Province

Occupation of Hami and Turpan; Continued Hostilities

In 1720, Qing troops occupied Hami and Turpan . Because the Dzungar troops lacked artillery, they preferred to fight in the open field; the Qing, on the other hand, preferred to fight from fortified positions, so the war entered a protracted phase. Peace negotiations were impossible due to the intransigence of the two sides: Tsewang Rabdan insisted that the Manchus abandon Hami, Turpan, and Khalkha. Tsewang Rabdan soon resumed hostilities, recapturing Turpan and Hami .^[33]

Qing Rule in Tibet

This began the Qing rule of Tibet, which lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Han Chinese General Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of Yue Fei) conquered Tibet for the Qing during this conflict.^[34][35] Jalangga, a Manchu Bannermen, succeeded the Han General Yue Zhongqi as commander in 1732.^[36]

Third Dzungar–Qing War

In 1723, the Kangxi Emperor's successor, the Yongzheng Emperor, sent an army of 230,000 led by Nian Gengyao to quell a Dzungar uprising in Qinghai on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Due to geography, the Qing army (although superior in numbers) was at first unable to engage their more mobile enemy. Eventually, they met the Dzungars and defeated them. This campaign cost the treasury at least eight million silver taels.

Third Dzungar-Qing War
Part of Dzungar–Qing Wars
Date 1731-1739 Location Modern-day Central Mongolia, present-day Khentii Province, modern western Mongolia and Xinjiang or the Altai Mountain region, Qinghai Result Dzungar Victory, minor Qing victory at Erdene Zuu Monastery Dzungars maintain a limited trade and border relations with the Qing Devastation and Widespread panic in Outer Mongolia, and Economic instability or Deficit for the Qing. Territorial changes Dzungar Khanate restores Western Mongolia, Parts of Qinghai from the Peace treaty of 1739.
Belligerents
Dzungar Khanate	Qing dynasty Khalkha Mongols
Commanders and leaders
Galdan Tseren Sengge Dorji Dorzhi Namjil	Yongzheng Emperor General Furdan Tseleng Yue Zhongqi Ortai Qianlong Emperor
Strength
20,000 to 30,000, possibly more	10,000 to 100,000
Casualties and losses
15,000 – 20,000 [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]	≈25,000 – 35,000 [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]

Altai Campaign (1731)

After the Treaty of 1724, which followed the Qing defeat of the Dzungar leader Tsewang Rabtan, a new khan, Galdan Tseren, came to power. He proved to be a capable and ambitious leader who sought to restore Dzungar power and influence. By the late 1720s, he began challenging Qing positions in Tibet and Kokonor (Qinghai), leading to a full resumption of large-scale hostilities in 1731.

This started one of the most significant and disastrous Qing defeat of this phase. With being in Yongzheng's reign, he sent a small army of 10,000 under Furdan to fight the Dzungars again. However, that army was ambushed and annihilated near the Khoton LakeEstimates suggest losses of 7,000-10,000 men. General Furdan barely escaped. This victory re-established Dzungar prestige and demonstrated that they were still a formidable power, capable of defeating a major Qing expeditionary force. It forced the Qing onto the defensive for a time in 1731 and the Qing Empire once again faced the danger of losing control of Mongolia. Another force under Yue Zhongqi successfully raided the Oirats in Ürümqi in 1731, but was forced to withdraw, lacking sufficient troops

to defend their position.^[34][35][47]

Tuul, Kherlen and Orkhon Campaign (1732)

After the shock of Khoton Lake, the Qing regrouped and, with their Khalkha Mongol allies, launched a successful counter-strike. The Dzungar victory at Khoton Lake allowed Galdan Tseren to seize the strategic initiative, leading to the deep raids on Tuul, Orkhon and Kherlen River, Though Not as clearly documented as Galdan Tseren for the overall strategy, but likely led by one of his most trusted subordinates. With the Objective being to deliver a knockout blow to the Qing by striking at the heart of their Khalkha Mongol allies, destroying their economic base (herds, camps), demoralizing them, and potentially fomenting rebellion. The targets were the sacred lands of the Tuul River Valley (near modern Ulaanbaatar) and the Kherlen River, areas critical to the Khalkha princes. With a large Dzungar cavalry force (estimated at 20,000-30,000) bypassed fortified Qing positions and drove deep into eastern Mongolia. They raided along the Tuul River, threatening the Qing administrative center at Uliastai and the religious center at Erdene Zuu, With them pushing even further east to the Kherlen River, causing widespread panic and devastation.^[48][49]

Khalkha ally of the Qing Empire or Tseleng, would finally defeat the Dzungars a year later in 1732 near the Erdene Zuu Monastery in Mongolia. They were intercepted and decisively defeated by the Qing-Khalkha force under Tseleng. This battle stopped the raid in its tracks and turned a strategic disaster for the Qing into a major tactical victory.

Failed Qing counteroffensives on (1733-1734)

Emboldened by their defensive victory at Jao Modo, the Qing decided to return to the offensive to try and avenge Khoton Lake and apply decisive pressure. Likely still involving Furdan and other senior generals to launch a renewed invasion into Dzungar territory, likely aiming for the Ili Valley, to destroy Galdan Tseren's power base. However, the campaign was a logistical and strategic failure. They were unable to force a decisive battle, The Dzungars, having learned from their earlier setbacks, refused to engage in a pitched battle and instead harried the Qing supply lines and used scorched-earth tactics in the vast, arid spaces of the Altai or Khangai region. Facing immense supply problems, demoralization, and a stubborn enemy that would not be pinned down, the Qing offensive ground to a halt without achieving any of its major objectives.^[50]

The Military Deadlock (1735-1737)

The Yongzheng Emperor and his court were acutely aware of the immense financial and logistical drain of the war. The campaigns had consumed vast sums of silver, tied down hundreds of thousands of troops, and resulted in no significant territorial gains since the early 1720s. The memory of the Khoton Lake disaster and the failure of the recent offensives made the court deeply reluctant to launch another major invasion. While Galdan Tseren had scored major defensive victories, the Dzungars were also feeling the strain. The Qing trade embargo was biting, cutting off access to vital goods like metals, textiles, and tea. Furthermore, the Dzungars were beginning to face renewed pressure on their western front from the Kazakhs, forcing them to fight a potential two-front war. ^[51]

Later the death of the Yongzheng Emperor in 1735 was a pivotal moment. His son and successor, the Qianlong Emperor, initially continued his father's policy of seeking a diplomatic solution. However, this was likely a strategic pause. Qianlong was determined to eventually solve the "Dzungar problem" permanently, but he first needed to consolidate his power, replenish the treasury, and ensure the military was fully prepared for a final, decisive confrontation.^[52]

Eventual Peace agreement

Both sides were exhausted by the immense cost of logistics and warfare across the vast distances of Central Asia. This led to a de facto ceasefire and a return to negotiations, which would eventually result in a new treaty in 1739, establishing a revised border and reopening trade. The treaty confirmed the Altai Mountains as the boundary between the two empires. The lands to the west were recognized as Dzungar territory, and the lands to the east (Khalkha Mongolia) were recognized as Qing territory, officially reopened and regulated trade. This was a major victory for Galdan Tseren, as it restored the Dzungars' access to Chinese goods. A key trade market was established at Tingzhou (near Urumqi).This peace, however, was only temporary, setting the stage for the final, genocidal war under the Qianlong Emperor in the 1750s.^[53][54][55]

Final conquest of the Dzungars

See also: Ten Great Campaigns § Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759), and Dzungar genocide

Map showing wars between the Qing dynasty and Dzungar Khanate

In 1752, Dawachi and the Khoit-Oirat prince Amursana competed for the title of Khan of the Dzungars. Amursana suffered several defeats at the hands of Dawachi and was thus forced to flee with his small army to the protection of the Qing imperial court. The Yongzheng Emperor's successor, the Qianlong Emperor, pledged his support to Amursana, who recognized Qing authority; among those who supported Amursana and the Chinese were the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn [zh] and Khwāja-i Jahān [zh]. In 1755, Qianlong sent the Manchu general Zhaohui, who was aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars. After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River, the Qing army, led by Zhaohui, approached Ili (Gulja) and forced Dawachi to surrender. Qianlong appointed Amursana as the Khan of Khoid and one of four equal khans – much to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.

Amursana now rallied the majority of the remaining Oirats to rebel against Qing authority. In 1758, General Zhaohui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu and the Battle of Khurungui. In the first battle, Zhaohui attacked Amursana's camp at night; Amursana was able to fight on until Zhaohui received enough reinforcements to drive him away. Between the battles of Oroi-Jalatu and Khurungui, the Chinese under Prince Cabdan-jab defeated Amursana at the Battle of Khorgos (known in the Qianlong engravings as the "Victory of Khorgos"). At Mount Khurungui, Zhaohui defeated Amursana in a night attack on his camp after crossing a river and drove him back. To commemorate Zhaohui's two victories, Qianlong had the Puning Temple of Chengde constructed, home to the world's tallest wooden sculpture of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara and hence its alternate name, the 'Big Buddha Temple'. Afterwards, Khojis of Us-Turfan submitted to the Qing Empire. After all of these battles, Amursana fled to Russia (where he died) while Chingünjav fled north to Darkhad but was captured at Wang Tolgoi and executed in Beijing.

• 
  Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili, 1755. Painting by Jesuit painter at the Qing court, Ignatius Sichelbart.
• 
  "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola", a scroll depicting a raid in 1755 in which the Kalmuk Ayusi, having gone to the Chinese side, attacks Dawa achi's camp on Mount Gadan. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
• 
  The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Zunghars at night in present Wusu, Xinjiang. Painting by Giuseppe Castiglione.
• 
  "The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret.^[56]
• 
  Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General Zhao Hui ambushes and defeats the Zungarian forces of Amoursana on Mount Khurungui (near Almaty, Kazakhstan). Painted by Jean-Damascène Sallusti.

See also

• Dzungar genocide
• Ten Great Campaigns
• Galdan Boshugtu Khan
• Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
  • Mongolia under Qing rule
  • Tibet under Qing rule
  • Xinjiang under Qing rule
  • Monument Imperial Pacification of Xizang