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Criminal Code of England and Wales

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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The jurisdiction of England and Wales does not have a Criminal Code though such an instrument has been often recommended and attempted. The creation of such a Code would require both consolidation and codification.

The Law Commission views a comprehensive criminal code as desirable in principle, but not currently feasible as a single undertaking. Its present approach is incremental simplification of discrete offence-areas and procedural law, creating code-ready statutes over time.[1]

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History

Summarize
Perspective

... with a view to its systematic development and reform, including in particular the codification of [the] law ... and generally the simplification and modernisation of the law.[2]

— A Criminal Code team is set up including academic lawyer Professor Sir John Cyril Smith, the outstanding criminal lawyer of his time.[2]

  • 1985 - Draft code published.[2][6]
  • 1989 - Draft code revised and expanded.[2]
  • 2002 - Government reiterates its intention to proceed with a code.[7]
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Arguments for a Code

Summarize
Perspective

Attorney-General Sir John Holker said:

Surely, it is a desirable thing that anybody who may want to know the law on a particular subject should be able to turn to a chapter of the Code, and there find the law he is in search of explained in a few intelligible and well-constructed sentences; nor would he have to enter upon a long examination of Russell on Crimes, or Archbold, and other text-books, because he would have a succinct and clear statement before him.[2]

Sir John Smith was, in general an opponent of legal codes but said:

The criminal law is entirely different. It is incoherent and inconsistent. State almost any general principle and you find one or more leading cases which contradict it. It is littered with distinctions which have no basis in reason but are mere historical accidents. I am in favour of codification of the criminal law because I see no other way of reducing a chaotic system to order, of eliminating irrational distinctions and of making the law reasonably comprehensible, accessible and certain. These are all practical objects. Irrational distinctions mean injustice. A is treated differently from B when there is no rational ground for treating him differently; and this is not justice.[2]

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Reports of the Royal Commissions

Royal Commission on the Criminal Law

  • First to Sixth Reports of the Royal Commission on the Criminal Law (1834, 1836, 1837, 1839, 1840, 1841).[8]
  • Seventh and Eighth Reports of the Royal Commission on the Criminal Law (1843).[9]

Royal Commission on Revising and Consolidating the Criminal Law

  • First to Fifth Reports of the Royal Commission on Revising and Consolidating the Criminal Law (1845, 1846, 1847, 1847, 1849).[10]

Royal Commission on the Law Relating to Indictable Offences

  • Report of the Royal Commission on the Law Relating to Indictable Offences (1879).[11]

Law Commission Reports and Papers

Codification of the Criminal Law: Law Com. Nos 143 and 177[12][13]

  • LC 143 (1985). Codification of the Criminal Law: a Report to the Law Commission.[14]
  • LC177(1) (1989). A Criminal Code for England and Wales (Vol. 1: Report and Draft Criminal Code Bill).[15]
  • LC177(2) (1989). A Criminal Code for England and Wales (Vol. 2: Commentary on Draft Criminal Code Bill).[16]
  • Hansard Debates, House of Lords, Vol 508 (22 May 1989), Col 2 56 ‘Law Commission Report No 177’.[17]

Abolition of Ancient Offences: Law Com. No 3[18]

  • LC 3 (1966). Report on Abolition of Ancient Offences. [19]

Imputed Criminal Intent: Law Co. No. 10[20]

  • LC 10 (1967). Report on Imputed Criminal Intent. [21]

Damage to Property: Law Com. No. 29[22]

  • LCCP 23 (1969). Working Paper on Malicious Damage.[23]
  • LC 29 (1970). Report on Offences of Damage to Property.[24]

Strict Liability

  • LCCP 30 (1970). Working Paper on Strict Liability and the Enforcement of the Factories Act 1961.[25]

Forgery and Counterfeit Currency: Law Com. No. 55[26]

  • LCCP 26 (1970). Working Paper on Forgery.[27]
  • LC 55 (1973). Report on Forgery and Counterfeit Currency.[28]

Parties, Complicity and Liability for the Acts of Another

  • LCCP 43 (1972). Working Paper on Parties, Complicity and Liability for the Acts of Another.[29]

Conspiracy and Criminal Law Reform: Law Com. No. 76[30]

  • LCCP 56 (1974). Working Paper on Conspiracy to Defraud.[31]
  • LCCP 57 (1974). Working Paper on Conspiracies Relating to Morals and Decency.[32]
  • LCCP 63 (1975). Working Paper on Conspiracies to Effect a Public Mischief and to Commit a Civil Wrong.[33]
  • LC 76 (1976). Report on Conspiracy and Criminal Law Reform.[34]

Defences of General Application: Law Com. No. 83[35]

  • LCCP 55 (1974). Working Paper on Defences of General Application.[36]
  • LC 83 (1977). Report on Defences of General Application.[37]

Mental Element in Crime: Law Com. No. 89[38]

  • LCCP 31 (1970). Working Paper on the Mental Element in Crime.[39]
  • LC 89 (1978). Report on the Mental Element in Crime.[40]

Territorial and Extraterritorial Extent of the Criminal Law: Law Com. No. 91[41]

  • LCCP 29 (1970). Working Paper on the Territorial and Extraterritorial Extent of the Criminal Law.[42]
  • LC 91 (1978). Report on the Territorial and Extra-Territorial Extent of the Criminal Law.[43]

Interference with the Course of Justice: Law Com. No. 96[44]

  • LCCP 33 (1970). Working Paper on Perjury and Kindred Offences.[45]
  • LCCP 62 (1975). Working Paper on Offences Relating to the Administration of Justice.[46]
  • LC 96 (1979). Report on Offences Relating to Interference with the Course of Justice.[47]

Attempt and Impossibility in Relation to Attempt, Conspiracy and Incitement: Law Com. No. 102[48]

  • LC 102 (1980). Report on Attempt and Impossibility in Relation to Attempt, Conspiracy and Incitement.[49]

Public Order Offences: Law Com. No. 123[50]

  • LCCP 82 (1982). Working Paper on Offences against Public Order.[51]
  • LC 123 (1983). Report on Offences Relating to Public Order.[52]

Offences against Religion and Public Worship: Law Com. No. 145[53]

  • LCCP 89 (1981). Working Paper on Offences against Religion and Public Worship.[54]
  • LC 145 (1985). Report on Offences against Religion and Public Worship.[55]

Criminal Liability of Corporations

  • LCCP 44 (1972). Working Paper on Criminal Liability of Corporations.[56]

Inchoate Offences: Conspiracy, Attempt and Incitement

  • LCCP 50 (1973). Working Paper on Inchoate Offences: Conspiracy, Attempt and Incitement.[57]

Entering and Remaining on Property

  • LCCP 54 (1974). Working Paper on Offences of Entering and Remaining on Property.[58]

Treason, Sedition and Allied Offences

  • LCCP 72 (1977). Working Paper on Treason, Sedition and Allied Offences.[59]

Criminal Libel: Law Com. No. 149[60]

  • LCCP 84 (1982). Working Paper on Criminal Libel.[61]
  • LC 149 (1985). Report on Criminal Libel.[62]

Poison Pen Letters: Law Com. No. 147[63]

  • LC 147 (1985). Report on Poison Pen Letters.[64]

Computer Misuse: Law Com. No.186[65]

  • LCCP 110 (1988). Working Paper on Computer Misuse.[66]
  • LC 186 (1989). Report on Computer Misuse.[67]

Rape within Marriage: Law Com. No. 205[68]

  • LCCP 116 (1990). Working Paper on Rape within Marriage.[69]
  • LC 205 (1992). Report on Rape within Marriage.[70]

Offences against the Person and General Principles: Law Com. No. 218[71]

  • LCCP 122 (1992). Consultation Paper on Offences against the Person and General Principles.[72]
  • LC 218 (1993). Report on Offences against the Person and General Principles.[73]

Conspiracy to Defraud: Law Com. No. 228[74]

  • LCCP 104 (1987). Working Paper on Conspiracy to Defraud.[75]
  • LC 228 (1995). Report on Conspiracy to Defraud.[76]

Intoxication and Criminal Liability: Law Com. No. 299[77]

  • LCCP 127 (1993). Consultation Paper on Intoxication and Criminal Liability.[78]
  • LC 229 (1995). Report on Intoxication and Criminal Liability.[79]
  • LCCP 134 (1994). Consultation Paper on Consent and Offences Against the Person.[80]

The Year and a Day Rule in Homicide: Law Com. No. 230[81]

  • LCCP 136 (1994). Consultation Paper on The Year and a Day Rule in Homicide.[82]
  • LC 230 (1995). Report on The Year and a Day Rule in Homicide.[83]

Involuntary Manslaughter: Law Com. No. 237[84]

  • LCCP 135 (1994). Consultation Paper on Involuntary Manslaughter.[85]
  • LC 237 (1996). Report on Involuntary Manslaughter.[86]
  • LCCP 139 (1994). Consultation Paper on Consent in the Criminal Law.[87]

Corruption: Law Com. No. 248[88]

  • LCCP 145 (1997). Consultation Paper on Corruption.[89]
  • LC 248 (1998). Report on Corruption.[90]

Misuse of Trade Secrets

  • LCCP 150 (1997). Consultation Paper on Misuse of Trade Secrets.[91]

Fraud: Law Com. No.276[92]

  • LCCP 155 (1999). Consultation Paper on Fraud and Deception.[93]
  • LC 276 (2002). Report on Fraud.[94]

Partial Defences to Murder: Law Com. No. 290[95]

  • LCCP 173 (2003). Consultation Paper on Partial Defences to Murder.[96]
  • LC 290 (2004). Report on Partial Defences to Murder Report.[97]

Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide: Law Com. No.304[98]

  • LCCP 177 (2005). Consultation Paper on A New Homicide Act for England and Wales?.[99]
  • LC 304 (2006). Report on Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide.[100]

Participating in Crime: Law Com. Nos 300 [101] and 305[102]

  • LCCP 131 (1993). Consultation Paper on Assisting and Encouraging Crime.[103]
  • LC 300 (2006). Report on Inchoate Liability for Assisting and Encouraging Crime.[104]
  • LC 305 (2007). Report on Participating in Crime.[105]

Bribery: Law Com. No. 313[106]

  • LCCP 185 (2007). Consultation Paper on Reforming Bribery.[107]
  • LC 313 (2008). Report on Reforming Bribery.[108]

Intoxication and Criminal Liability: Law Com. No. 314[109]

  • LC 314 (2009). Report on Intoxication and Criminal Liability.[110]

Insanity and Automatism[111]

  • (2012). Scoping Paper on Insanity and Automatism.[112]
  • (2013). Discussion Paper on Insanity and Automatism.[113]

Kidnapping: Law Com. No. 355[114]

  • LCCP 200 (2011). Consultation Paper on Kidnapping.[115]
  • LC 355 (2014). Report on Kidnapping and Related Offences.[116]

Public Nuisance and Outraging Public Decency: Law Com. No. 358[117]

  • LC 358 (2015). Report on Public Nuisance and Outraging Public Decency.[118]

Offences against the Person: Law Com. No. 361[119]

  • LCCP 217 (2014). Scoping Consultation Paper on Reform of Offences against the Person.[120]
  • LC 361 (2015). Report on Reform of Offences against the Person.[121]

Firearms: Law Com. No. 363[122]

  • LCCP 224 (2015). Scoping Paper on Firearms Law.[123]
  • LC 363 (2015). Report on Firearms Law – Reforms to Address Pressing Problems.[124]

Protection of Official Data: Law Com. No. 395[125]

  • LCCP 230 (2017). Consultation Paper on Protection of Official Data.[126]
  • LC 395 (2020). Report on Protecting Official Data.[127]

Misconduct in Public Office: Law Com. No.397[128]

  • LCCP 229 (2016). Consultation Paper on Reforming Misconduct in Public Office.[129]
  • LC 397 (2020). Report on Misconduct in Public Office.[130]

Abusive and Offensive Online Communications: Law Com. Nos 381[131] and 399[132]

  • LC 381 (2018). Scoping Paper on Abusive and Offensive Online Communications.[133]
  • LCCP 249 (2020). Consultation Paper on Harmful Online Communications: The Criminal Offences.[134]
  • LC 399 (2021). Report on Modernising Communications Offences.[135]

Hate Crime: Law Com. Nos 348[136] and 402[137]

  • LC 348 (2014). Report on Hate Crime: Should the Current Offences Be Extended?.[138]
  • LCCP 250 (2020). Consultation Paper on Hate Crime Laws.[139]
  • LC 402 (2021). Final Report on Hate Crime Laws.[140]

Automated Vehicles: Law Com. No.404[141]

  • LCCP 240 (2018). Preliminary Consultation Paper on Automated Vehicles.[142]
  • LCCP 244 (2019). Second Consultation Paper on Automated Vehicles.[143]
  • LCCP 245 (2020). Third Consultation Paper on Automated Vehicles.[144]
  • LC 404 (2022). Report on Automated Vehicles.[145]

Corporate Criminal Liability[146]

  • (2022). Options Paper on Corporate Criminal Liability.[147]

Current Ongoing Projects (as at November 2025)

  • Consent in the criminal law.[148]
  • Offences against dead bodies.[149]
  • The defence of insanity.[150]
  • Law of homicide.[151]
  • Contempt of Court.[152]
  • Defences for victims of domestic abuse who kill their abusers.[153]
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Suggested reading

Books

  • Bohlander, Michael; Birkett, Daley (Eds) (2014). The Codification of Criminal Law.[154]
  • Smith, K. J. M. (1998). Lawyers, legislators, and theorists: developments in English criminal jurisprudence 1800-1957.[155]
  • Robinson, Paul H. (1997). Structure and Function in Criminal Law.[156]
  • Cornish, W.R. and Clarke, G. de N. (1989). Law and Society in England 1750–1950.[157]
  • Lang, Maurice Eugen (1924). Codification in the British Empire and America.[158]
  • Stephen, James Fitzjames. (1877). A Digest of the Criminal Law (Crimes and Punishments).[159]
  • Cottu, Charles. (1800). On the Administration of the Criminal Code in England, and the Spirit of the English Government.[160]
  • Schofield, Philip; Harris, Jonathan (Eds). Legislator of the world: writings on codification, law, and education (The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham).[161]

Chapters in books

  • Cross, Sir Rupert. (1978). Pages 5-20: The Reports of the Criminal Law Commissioners (1833-1849) and the Abortive Bills of 1853 in Reshaping the Criminal Law: Essays in Honour of Glanville Williams.[162]
  • Clive, Eric. (2010). Chapter 4 (pp.54-69): Codification of the Criminal Law[163] in Essays in Criminal Law in Honour of Sir Gerald Gordon.[164]
  • Clarkson, Chris. (2011). Recent Law Reform and Codification of the General Principles of Criminal Law in England and Wales: A Tale of Woe in Codification, Macaulay and the Indian Penal Code: The Legacies and Modern Challenges of Criminal Law Reform.[165]
  • Herring, J. (2022: 10th end). Chapter 1 in Criminal Law: Text, Cases, and Materials.[166]

Journal articles

  • Chalmers, James. (2014). Frenzied Law Making: Overcriminalization by Numbers (2014) 67(1) Current Legal Problems.[167]
  • Lavery, Jenny. (2010). Codification of the Criminal Law: An Attainable Ideal? (2010) 74(6) J. Crim. L. 557.[168]
  • Ferguson, Pamela R. (2009). Constructing a criminal code (2009) 20(1) Crim. L.F. 139.[169]
  • Dennis, Ian. (2009). RIP: The Criminal Code (1968-2008) (Editorial) [2009] Crim. L.R. 1-2.[170]
  • Ferguson, Pamela R. (2009). Codifying criminal law: the Scots and English draft codes compared [2004] Crim. L.R. 105-119.[171]
  • Samuels, Alex. (2003). Why do we not have a criminal code? (2003) 67(3) J. Crim. L. 214-219.[172]
  • Dennis, Ian. (2003). The Law Commission and codification of the criminal law: Part 35 (Editorial) [2003] Crim. L.R. 431-432.[173]
  • Dennis, Ian. (2001). Reviving the criminal code (Editorial) [2001] Crim. L.R. 261-264.[174]
  • Farmer, Lindsay (2000). Reconstructing the English Codification Debate: The Criminal Law Commissioners, 1833–45 (2000) 18(2) Law and History Review 397–442.[175]
  • Robinson, Paul H . (2000). Structuring Criminal Codes to Perform Their Function (2000) 4(1) Buff. Crim. L.R. 1.[176]
  • Arden, Mary (1999). Criminal law at the crossroads: the impact of human rights from the Law Commission's perspective and the need for a code [1999] Crim. L.R. 439-459.[177]
  • Bingham of Cornhill, Lord Justice. (1998). A criminal code: must we wait for ever? [1998] Crim. L.R. 694-696.[178]
  • Smith, J.C. (1995). The Law Commission's Criminal Law Bill: a good start for the Criminal Code [1995] Stat. L.R. 105-108.[179]
  • Brooke, Henry (1995). The Role of the Law Commission in Simplifying Statute Law (1995) 16(1) Stat. L.R. 1.[180]
  • Samuels, Alec. (1992). Drafting the criminal code (1992) 13(3) Stat. L.R. 229-239.[181]
  • Gardiner, Simon. (1992). Reiterating the Criminal Code (1992) 55(6) M.L.R. 839-847.[182]
  • Wells, Celia. (1992). Moral boundaries and criminal codes (1992) 142(6564) N.L.J. 1133-1134.[183]
  • Ashworth, Andrew. (1992). Legislating the criminal code [1992] Crim. L.R. 393-395.[184]
  • Smith, A.T.H. (1992). Legislating the criminal code: the Law Commission's proposals [1992] Crim. L.R. 396-406.[185]
  • Ashworth, Andrew. (1990). Codifying English criminal law (Editorial) [1990] Crim. L.R. 141-142.[186]
  • Midland Circuit. (1990). Lord Chief Justice Cockburn's letters on the Criminal Code Bill of 1879 [1990] Crim. L.R. 315-317.[187]
  • de Burca, Grainne, and Gardner, Simon (1990). The codification of the criminal law (1990) 10(4) O.J.L.S. 559-571.[188]
  • Cowley, David. (1990). Codification of the criminal law (1990) 54(1) J. Crim. L. 98-99.[189]
  • Ashworth, Andrew. (1989). A criminal code for England and Wales (Editorial) [1989] 393-394.[190]
  • Editorial. (1989). Criminal law codification (1989) 139(6404) NLJ 529.[191]
  • Buxton, Richard. (1989). The Law Commission's Criminal Code (1989) 139(6407) N.L.J. 639-640.[192]
  • Smith, J.C. (1987). Codification of the criminal law [1987] Denning L.J. 137-150.[193]
  • Smith, A.T.H. (1986). Codification of the criminal law - Part 1: The case for a code [1986] Crim. L.R. 285-295.[194]
  • Bennion, Francis. (1986). Codification of the criminal law - Part 2: The technique of codification [1986] Crim. L.R. 295-302.[195]
  • Ashworth, Andrew. (1986). Codification of the criminal law - Part 3: The draft code, complicity and the inchoate offences [1986] Crim. L.R. 303-314.[196]
  • Wells, Celia. (1986). Codification of the criminal law - Part 4: Restatement or reform [1986] Crim. L.R. 314-323.[197]
  • Wasik, Martin (1986). Codification: mental disorder and intoxication under the draft criminal code (1986) 50(4) J. Crim. L. 393-404.[198]
  • Clarkson, C.M.V., and Keating, H.M. (1986). Codification: offences against the person under the draft criminal code (1986) 50(4) J. Crim. L. 405-431.[199]
  • Ashworth, Andrew (1984). Influences on the Creation of Criminal Law and Criminal Policy in England (1984) 13(2) J. Crim. L.955-111.[200]
  • Friedland M L, ‘R S Wright’s Model Criminal Code: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of the Criminal Law’ (1981) 1 Oxford J Legal Stud 307.[201]
  • Shapiro, Barbara (1974). ‘Codification of the Laws in Seventeenth-Century England’ (1974) Wis. L. Rev. 428.[202]
  • Scarman, Leslie (1967) Codification and Judge-Made Law: A Problem of Coexistence [1967] 42 Indiana Law Journal 3.[203]
  • Stone, Ferdinand Fairfax (1955). A Primer on Codification (1955) 29 Tul. L. Rev. 303.[204]
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See also

References

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