English national identity

According to some scholars, a national identity of the English as the people or ethnic group dominant in England can be traced to the Anglo-Saxon period. For Lindy Brady and Marc Morris, Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People and the construction of Offa's Dyke exemplifies the establishment of such an identity as early as AD 731, becoming a national identity with the unification of the Kingdom of England in the ninth and tenth centuries, and changing status once again in the eleventh century after the Norman Conquest, when Englishry came to be the status of the subject indigenous population.^[1][2] Similarly, Adrian Hastings considers England to be the oldest example of a "mature nation", and links the development of this nationhood to the Christian Church and spread of written popular languages to existing ethnic groups.^[3]

Royal arms of England

In contrast, John Breuilly rejects the notion these examples constituted "national" identity and criticizes the assumption that continued usage of a term such as 'English' means continuity in its meaning.^[4] Patrick J. Geary agrees, arguing names were adapted to different circumstances by different powers and could convince people of continuity, even if radical discontinuity was the lived reality.^[5] Geary also rejects the conflation of early medieval and contemporary group identities as a myth, arguing it is a mistake to conclude continuity based on the recurrence of names and that historians fail to recognize the differences between earlier ways of perceiving group identities and more contemporary attitudes, stating they are "trapped in the very historical process we are attempting to study".^[6] Krishan Kumar also points out that Bede's 'English' did not refer to a unified people, but rather "still diverse groups of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and others with distinct ethnicities".^[7]

From the eighteenth century, the terms 'English' and 'British' began to be seen as interchangeable to many of the English.^[8] While the official United Kingdom census does record ethnicity, English/Welsh/Scottish/Northern Irish/British is a single tick-box under the "White" heading for the answer to the ethnicity question asked in England and Wales (while making the distinction of white Irish).^[9][10]

Features

English identity emerged from the Anglo-Saxon period after the fall of Roman Britain, with the unification of various kingdoms under figures like Alfred the Great in the 9th century. The Norman Conquest in 1066 layered Norman influences onto this Germanic base, shaping the language, governance, and culture. Over centuries, events like the Magna Carta (1215), the English Reformation (16th century), and the Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries) fostered a narrative of individualism, parliamentary democracy, and innovation as hallmarks of Englishness. Although Englishness and Britishness are used synonymously in some contexts,^[11] the two terms are not identical, and the relation of each to the other is complex. Englishness is often a response to different national identities within Britain, such as Scottishness, Irishness, Welshness and Cornishness.^[12]

Culturally, English identity is often linked to symbols and traditions: the English language (a global lingua franca), tea-drinking, the monarchy, Shakespeare, the BBC, and sports like cricket and football. The countryside—rolling hills, villages, and pubs—also plays a big role in the romanticised self-image, contrasting with urban centers like London, a global melting pot. Socially, English identity is tied to values like "fair play," politeness, understatement, and a dry sense of humor—think "stiff upper lip" or queuing etiquette. Notions of "fair play," parliamentary democracy, and a certain understated stoicism have been linked to English self-perception. The monarchy, though a British institution, is often tied to English tradition through landmarks like Westminster or Windsor. Tea-drinking, pub culture, cricket, football, rugby, and events like the Last Night of the Proms or Guy Fawkes Night contribute to a shared cultural fabric.

Sometimes Englishness is thought to be encapsulated in terms of a particular relation to sport: fair play, for instance. Arguably, England's "national games" are football and, particularly, cricket. As cricket historian Dominic Malcolm argues, the link between cricket and England's national identity became solidified through literature. Works such as James Love's Cricket: an heroic poem and Mary Mitford's Our Village, along with Nyren's The Cricketers of My Time and Pycroft's The Cricket Field, purported to identify the characteristics of cricket with the notional characteristics of English society, such as pragmatism, integrity, and independence.^[13]

English identity has shifted significantly in recent centuries. The British Empire’s peak saw Englishness intertwined with imperial pride, but its decline after World War II prompted a reevaluation. England’s population is diverse, with immigration from former colonies, Europe, and beyond reshaping urban centers like London, Manchester, and Liverpool. This has led to tensions and discussions about what "Englishness" means in a globalised, multiethnic society. Some associate it with rural nostalgia—rolling hills, villages, and cream teas—while others see it as urban, dynamic, and cosmopolitan.

See also

• Culture of England
• English nationalism