Insurgency in Karadak–Gollak (1941–1951)

The insurgency in Karadak–Gollak, also known as the War in Eastern Kosovo (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës Lindore),^[14] was a series of Albanian riots in the Karadak and Gollak regions with spillover into the Anamorava regions. Initially directed against Bulgarian, German, and Italian occupation following the Invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, it later targeted the Yugoslav Partisans who were attempting to gain control of the area.

Insurgency in Karadak-Gollak
Part of World War II in Yugoslavia and the post-war era
In 1941, Kosovo is occupied by the Bulgarian forces, with the Karadak region under Bulgarian control, and the area of Gollak occupied by the German military administration.
Date First phase: 18 April 1941–9 September 1944 Second phase: 9 September 1944–July 1945 Third phase: 15 August 1945–6 October 1951 Location Karadak and Gollak regions, Bulgaria, SFR Yugoslavia Modern-day Kosovo, Serbia and North Macedonia Result Yugoslav victory Territorial changes Preševo valley, Skopska Crna Gora and Gollak secured by Yugoslavia
Belligerents
1941–1944 Albania Balli Kombëtar Kachaks Chetniks (surrendered to Partisans in 1943)	1941–1944 Tsardom of Bulgaria Yugoslav Partisans Macedonian Partisans
1944–1945 Albania Balli Kombëtar Kachaks Germany	1944–1945 Bulgaria Yugoslav Partisans
1946–1951 Ballist dissidents Kachak dissidents	1945–1951 SFR Yugoslavia Yugoslav Macedonia Yugoslav Kosovo
Commanders and leaders
Mulla Idriz Gjilani † Sulë Hotla  (from 1944) Mulla Dulla (from 1944) Jusuf Baftjari  Hasan Ali Remniku † Mustafa Kokaj † Limon Staneci Ibrahim Kelmendi Mulla Sadik Haliti  Ymer Myqybaba † Fuad Dibra Xheladin Kurbaliu (from 1942) † Hazir Haziri † Sylë Zarbica † Rrustem Behluli †[1] Ali Sylë Staneci † (from 1944) Alexander Löhr	Sulë Hotla (until 1944) Mulla Dulla (until 1944) Ali Sylë Staneci (until 1944) Vladimir Stoychev Kiril Stanchev Mile Čalović Tomica Popović Fadil Hoxha Abdullah Krashnica † Sinan Hasani Xheladin Kurbaliu (until 1942) Mihailo Apostolski[2] Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš †
Units involved
Karadak battalion[3] Kachaks from Karadak[4] Heeresgruppe E 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg[5][6]	8th Macedonian Brigade 12th Macedonian Brigade 16th Macedonian Brigade 17th Macedonian Brigade 18th Macedonian Brigade 2nd Kosovska Brigade 3rd Kosovska Brigade[7]
Strength
1944: 10,000[8] 3,600[9]–4,000 soldiers (Only in Karadak)[10] 3 Divisions 1947: 1,735 rebels (Only in Karadak)[11]	5 Divisions 2 Divisions
Casualties and losses
11,200 killed, including militants and civilians	Tsardom of Bulgaria unknown SFR Yugoslavia (1944) Yugoslav Macedonia 474[12]–1,500+ killed[13] Yugoslav Kosovo unknown

In early October 1951, amidst the post-war era, the state security service of Yugoslavia (UDBA) sought to eliminate Hasan Remniku and Mustafa Kokaj, the last of the Ballist and Kachak rebel leaders. UDBA agents, disguised as individuals offering assistance to smuggle Kokaj and Remniku across the border into Albania, lured them into an ambush set up by Yugoslav forces on October 6, 1951. The ensuing three-day confrontation between Yugoslav and Ballist forces resulted in the deaths of Kokaj, Remniku, and the majority of their soldiers.^[15]

Background

Following the April War, the region of Kosovo was divided into three occupation zones, which were defined in the Vienna talks. Axis Powers like Italy and Germany sought to meet the demands of Bulgaria, which was another ally of the Axis Bloc.^{[citation needed]} Bulgaria sought to annex the Karadak region which included parts of the Region of Gjilan, Vitia, Kaçanik, the Presevo Valley, Kumanovo and Skopje.^[16][17] The newly annexed regions contained about 200,000 Albanians. All ethnic Albanian territories annexed by Bulgaria, were declared as an integral part of the Bulgarian Kingdom.

Course of the war

First Phase

After the border changes, Bulgarians resorted to targeted violence to force Muslim Albanians from Karadak to emigrate.^[18] The violence in the Bulgarian-Albanian border areas encompassed a wide range of abuses, including arbitrary arrests, expulsions, rapes, and executions.^[18] The Italians faced an increasing wave of Albanian refugees fleeing from the Bulgarian territories.^[18] The prefect of Pristina, Drini, informed Albanian Prime Minister Mustafa Kruja about the unbearable situation for Albanians on the Bulgarian side due to severe persecution, where rapes and violence were common.^[18] Drini mentioned the villages along the Albanian-Bulgarian border—Lubishtë, Blinicë, Ramatovë, Vitovë, Zhegër, Hadevë, Pogragjë, Uglarë, Hashtiçe, and Remnik—where the Bulgarians had caused a "hellish situation."^[18]

Following large-scale attacks on the civilian population in Karadak, many residents—including Albanians, Serbs, and Macedonians—rose up against Bulgarian rule.^[19][20] Many Albanians joined the Balli Kombëtar, while others joined the Partisan movement, alongside most Serbs and Macedonians.^[19][20] In 1941, the Karadak Partisan detachment, composed mainly of Serbs and Macedonians, was formed in Kumanovo to resist the Bulgarian occupiers.^[21][20][22] The detachment moved toward the Karadak region with the task of fueling the uprising in that area, which had a predominantly Albanian population.^[23][24][25] On the morning of October 13, the squad arrived in Belanovce and took shelter in an abandoned mill.^[23][24][25] There, the fighters studied propaganda material and held a party meeting to analyze the squad's march and future tasks. After learning that the detachment was in the mill, a villager immediately informed the Bulgarian police in Kumanovo.^[23][24][25] The next day, on October 14, at dawn, the 53rd Osogovo Infantry Regiment of the Bulgarian army, under the command of Ljubomir Cekov, attacked the detachment, crushing it after an hour-long struggle.^{[26][23][24][25]} Seven fighters died in the battle, while the remaining eight were captured. Among those killed were Boro Menkov, Perot Georgievski, Magdalena Antova (the first female fighter from Macedonia to die in the war), Kiro Burnazovsky, Ariton Dimkovski, and Bajram Shabani. Nace Ivanovski was executed on the spot. The rest were imprisoned.^[23][24][25]

On May 20, 1942, after more than 200 people fled in a group to Albania, Albanian Propaganda Minister Dhimitër Beratti deemed the violence at the Bulgarian-Albanian border to be so acute that he provided a chronology of Bulgarian abuses against Albanians to Commendatore Angelo Corrias, head of the Albanian Affairs Office in the Italian Foreign Ministry.^[18] This report detailed thirty severe incidents from December 17, 1941, to May 27, 1942, including mass rapes and mutilations. Among the worst incidents on March 13, 1942, in the villages of Kabash, Remnik, Zhegër, Nasale, Gjylekar, Uglar, Shurdhan, and Llashticë, Bulgarian soldiers, along with Serbian civilians, committed "the most heinous acts" against women and girls while the Albanian men were imprisoned.^[18] One pregnant woman lost her child during the two days of rapes, and another went insane.^[18] By July 10, 1942, Beratti supplemented his report with a second chronology listing 21 more cases of persecution by Bulgarians against Albanians.^[18] On August 6, 1942, Secretary Salvatore Saloni reported that abuses by Bulgarian soldiers against Albanians in the border areas were increasing daily, noting that extortions were common on both sides, closely linked to the new and often unclear border demarcations.^[18]

From 12 to 15 March 1942, Serbian Chetniks, in collaboration with the occupying Bulgarian army, besieged the village of Remnik and perpetrated violence against the local Albanian population.^[27][28] Under the guise of searching for weapons, they detained the men of Remnik in the village mosque for three days, resulting in the torture and execution of 24 individuals.^[27][28] After the massacre, Hasan Ali Remniku and his men managed to break the siege and relocate the villagers to the Italian-controlled zone.^[27][28] They organized resistance against the Serbian and Bulgarian occupiers and sought revenge against those involved in the massacre.^[27][28] Reports indicate that Hasan Ali Remniku killed over 15 Bulgarian and Serbian soldiers, including some who took part in the massacre at the mosque.^[27][28]

A report by the Albanian Ministry of the Free Land in September 1942 noted that, due to violence and pressure from Bulgarian occupiers, over 3,000 Albanian residents from the Karadak Mountains in Kosovo, Kumanovo, Kaçanik, Preševo, and Skopje had been forced to leave their homes.^{[citation needed]} They were experiencing difficult conditions in areas like Gjilan and Ferizaj.^{[citation needed]}

The first military action of the insurgency occurred in Karadak, specifically in Lojane, when Albanian and Serbian partisans under the command of Xheladin Kurbaliu attacked the Lojane mine on October 19, 1942. Bulgarian forces were defeated with minimal resistance.^[29] After the clash, disputes erupted among the partisans, prompting Xheladin Kurbaliu to switch sides and join Balli Kombëtar, where he became a prominent commander of the Ballist forces in Karadak^[29] Following the attack on the Bulgarian mine, Bulgarian soldiers randomly accused male Albanians from the village of Straža of banditry and subsequently mistreated and tortured them.^[18] In another massacre in the Preševo region, Bulgarian soldiers abducted and shot Albanians without cause in the autumn of 1942.^[18]

After Albanians in Karadak faced severe abuse, Isuf Pidiqi, a local leader, traveled to Skopje to plead with a Bulgarian military commander to end the massacres.^[30] Following their meeting, the Bulgarian soldiers ceased their attacks.^[30] However, the situation escalated when Albanian Ballists from the village of Goden ambushed a Bulgarian patrol and seized the rifle of a killed Soldier.^[30] In response, the Bulgarian forces resumed their harsh reprisals. To restore peace, Isuf Pidiqi intervened once more, offering his son as a hostage to the Bulgarians for 24 hours.^[30] He recovered the stolen rifle and returned it to the Bulgarian authorities, leading to the cessation of hostilities.^[30]

On April 23, 1943, an Albanian partisan detachment took control of the Zhegoc, and by April 25, Kishnapole and Sllakoc.^[31] They planned to move from Kishnapole to Gjilan and then to the mountains near Malishevë to send messengers to the district committee. However, their guide was unfamiliar with the route, so they settled in the Jabuq mountains between Ponesh and Upper Livoç.^[31] Soon however they were detected and on April 26, the Italian army, joined by local fascist militias numbering 2,000 men, under the command of Mulla Idriz Gilani, surrounded the detachment.^[32] In the ensuing clash, deputy commissar Musa Zajmi was killed, and Nexhmedin Nixha was wounded.^[31] The district committee and supporters of the National Liberation Movement organized aid.^[31] The detachment then proceeded to retreat toward Gadish.^[31]

In 1943, Slavic partisans fighting alongside Albanian partisans in the mountains of Kosovo provoked tensions by singing songs that glorified their leadership. This eventually led to a conflict between the two groups in the Karadak mountains. However, Abdullah Krashnica, the main commander in the region, managed to mediate and reconcile them, preventing further violence among the partisans.^[33]

In early 1942, Bulgarian Interior Minister Petar Gabrovski and Skopje police director Asen Bogdanov formed contra-Chetnik and Partisan units, including Serbs and Albanians. Notable leaders included Sulë Hotla and Ali Sylë Staneci.^[34] On September 15, 1943, during Tarawih prayer at the Lower Mosque in Presheva, Serbian contra-Chetniks, led by Jagosh Djurović, attacked.^[34] They sealed exits, threw bombs inside, and shot at fleeing worshippers.^[34] The attack left 4–6 Albanians dead and 18–39 wounded. Local Albanians, led by Zymber Kurbalia, retaliated with fire against the Serb perpetrators upon hearing the gunshots.^[34] The next day, Bulgarian authorities gave the Albanian contra-Chetniks, under the command of Ali Sylë Staneci, one hour to take revenge on the Serbs. Ali Sylë Staneci and his fighters hunted down the Serbs and killed four Serb soldiers.^[34]

In December 1943, the High Command assigned Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš the mission of eliminating the Chetniks in the Skopska Crna Gora region near Skopje and Kozjak in Kumanovo. Leading detachments from Kumanovo and Skopje, he engaged the Chetniks in three battles, the most significant of which took place near the village of Dragomance at the end of 1943. This battle effectively ended the Chetnik presence in the Kumanovo region. By the end of January 1941, the Macedonian Partisans had disarmed the remaining Chetniks in Skopska Crna Gora.^{[citation needed]} Shortly after the victory against the Chetniks, on February 7, 1944, Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš led a raid on the Bulgarian stronghold in Biljača, Bujanovac. However, the attack was unsuccessful, and the Macedonian partisans were defeated, with Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš being killed in battle.

During the first phase of the conflict, Gollak was a theater for multiple Yugoslav Partisan and Chetnik incursions aimed at gaining a foothold in the region, as most of Gollak had been annexed by Albania.^{[31][35][36][37][page needed]} On May 23, 1944, Chetnik units attacked, raided, and carried out massacres in the villages of Gollak, including Brainë, Prapashticë, Hajkobillë, Dabishec, Nishec, Bërvenik, Metërgoc.^[38] In the summer of 1944, Albanian communists in Gollak established partisan cells in several villages, including Brainë, Prapashticë, Dabishec, Nishec, and Koliq.^[39] The Gollak partisans were organized into a battalion and were tasked with operating along the Brainë-Prishtinë route, ambushing German and Albanian forces sent to defend the border. The first Yugoslav offensive by the 22nd Division on Velegllava in Kika Mountain, Gollak, began on June 28, 1944, with a force of 500-600 men from Toplica, Vranje, and Leskovac.^{[35][31][36][37]} They encountered fierce resistance from Balli Kombëtar units. After 12 hours of fighting, the Yugoslav partisans were defeated, suffering 200 killed and 131 captured, while the Ballists lost 17 men, including commanders like Abdi Gjoka and Bajram Poliçka.^{[31][35][36][37]}

On the night of July 25–26, the Partisans 21st, 22nd, 24th, and 25th divisions, reinforced by 3,000-3,500 soldiers, launched a large-scale offensive along a 20-kilometer front toward Gjilan.^[40][36][41] They attacked Kika Mountain again, but the Ballists emerged victorious, with the Partisans sustaining 143 killed and 209 wounded.^[41] The Ballists lost 34 men, including Commander Islam Shahiqi.^[35][41]

Between 28 August and 7 September 1944, a battle occurred near Preševo, near the Rajince river, between Ballists under the command of Limon Staneci and Ibrahim Kelmendi, and Bulgarian forces, culminating in an Albanian victory after the Bulgarian forces capitulated and withdrew on 9 September 1944.^[42] Following Italy's capitulation on 8 September 1943, new opportunities arose to unify Albanian-inhabited territories with German-occupied Albania.^[43][44] To further this aim, the Second League of Prizren was established in Prizren from 16 to 20 September 1943, representing all Albanian lands, including those under German and Bulgarian control. With Bulgaria's capitulation on 9 September 1944, Albanian Ballist forces in Karadak occupied and de facto annexed territories previously under Bulgarian control (Preševo, Bujanovac, Skopje, Kumanovo) with the state of Albania.^{[5][43][44][42][45]} These forces, primarily from Karadak, were commanded by leaders such as Jusuf Baftjari, Xheladin Kurbaliu, Limon Staneci, Ibrahim Kelmendi, Sylë Hotla etc.^[43] On 12 September 1944, Sylë Hotla and thousands of his men from Karadak, together with hundreds of men from the forces of Xhem Gostivari and Mefail Shehu, captured Skopje and raised the Albanian flag.^[46]

Second Phase

Bulgarian offensive and Yugoslav offensives on Presevo and Kumanovo

Main articles: Stratsin–Kumanovo operation and Kosovo Operation (1944)

Immediately after the incursion into Preševo and Bujanovac, Albanian Ballists undertook measures to organize and gather volunteer groups to prevent the advance or any eventual attack from the Yugoslav National Liberation Army. Fighting between the Albanian Ballists and the Yugoslav Partisans began on September 9, 1944, in Ternovac and Bujanovac.^[29] The fighting continued on September 10.^[29] On that day, the Albanian Ballists in Bujanovac received assistance from several soldiers of the IV Regiment of the Second League of Prizren under the command of Colonel Fuad Dibra.^[29] The battle between the Yugoslav Partisans and the Albanian Ballists from Karadak intensified particularly on September 10.^[29] The Yugoslav Partisans hoped that the Albanian Ballists would be weak due to the lack of real military organization. However, after three days of fighting Yugoslav Partisans eventually withdrew, due to the effective Ballist defense.^[29]

On 18 September 1944, Yugoslav Partisans again sought control of the Presevo Valley and Kumanovo, clashing with German-aligned Albanian Ballists near Lojane.^[47][48] The Partisans attacked but were driven back to Nikuljane, where they faced further ambushes.^[48][10] Residents of Sopot also joined the fight and killed many Partisans, prompting later retaliatory violence against the village.^[48][49] Suffering heavy losses, the Partisan forces retreated on 24 September, leaving around 500 dead and 117 captured.^[48] Simultaneously Operations in Preševo on 19 September led to initial Partisan gains, but local Kachaks from Karadak counterattacked, reclaiming the area and inflicting heavy casualties.^[50][51] Despite reinforcement efforts, the Partisans ultimately fell back.^[51][52][50] During the battle over 100 Partisans were killed, while 206 were taken prisoners of war.^[51][52] A British report, however, indicated that Ballists overran the 17th Macedonian Brigade near Presevo, resulting in the deaths of 1,500 Partisan soldiers.^[13]

On September 22, a partisan unit under commander Niko Vukčević clashed with Sylë Hotla's Ballist forces, who forced the Partisans to retreat toward Runica, which they set ablaze, executing residents.^[48] The following day, they burned houses in Glažnja and advanced toward Brest, where they met Hotla's forces again and retreated back to Runica and Alaševce.^[48] Niko Vukčević, the brigade commander, admitted to setting fire to Runica and Gllazhnjë. He stated: "At dawn (on September 23), we reached the village of Runica, which offered us significant resistance. I ordered the entire village to be burned... We also burned several houses in the village of Gllazhnjë, which was providing resistance..."^[53]

On the morning of September 23, partisans attacked Runica and Alaševce, killing civilians, including women and children, and burning homes.^[48] News of the atrocities spread, prompting about forty men from Slupčane, led by Mulla Sadik Haliti, to confront the partisans.^[48] Initially suffering losses, Mulla Sadik Haliti managed to disable a machine gun position, forcing the partisans to retreat and face further resistance from Hotla's units.^[48]

Bulgaria declared war on Germany on September 8. In October, following the Niš operation, the First and Second Bulgarian Armies attacked the German and Albanian forces in Kosovo from the North, capturing cities in the Anamorava region and advancing into Kosovo.^[54] On October 15, 1944, in the village of Prapashticë, Bulgarian forces trying to move towards Pristina were defeated by Albanian Ballist troops led by officers such as Isak Domi, Mulla Idriz Gjilani, Shefqet Bullykbashi, Mulla Sefë Govori, Nazmi Budrika and other leaders from the villages of Gollak, who knew the terrain well.^[55] On October 18, 1944, Bulgarians again attacked, the Albanian Ballists, now reinforced, mounted a strong resistance against two regiments of the Bulgarian army. After three days of fighting, the Bulgarian forces were defeated by the Albanian troops.^[55] The battle resulted in the Bulgarians losing 600 soldiers in battle, while around 60 Albanian Ballists were killed, The Bulgarian army also lost a significant amount of weaponry, including 12 cannons, a machine gun, a mortar, hundreds of rifles, and around 60 draft animals.^[55] The Albanian forces also captured several artillery pieces and animals used to transport ammunition.^[55]

From October 24 to 30, 1944, Albanians from Karadak especially Tanuševci, under the command of Tefik Tanisheci, advanced toward villages in the Skopska Crna Gora where numerous partisan brigades had gathered, including local partisans with reinforcements from Vranje, Preševo, Bujanovac, and Anamorava.^[56] They launched a successful offensive across open terrain, moving from Guri i Zi through Brodec and Kučevište, toward Bajašnica, reaching as far as the Banjane and Gornjane.^[56]

At the same time, on October 25, Bulgarian forces captured the villages of Tabanovce, Staro Nagoričane, and Novo Nagoričane. Between October 26 and 27, they advanced toward Žujince, Moravica, and Bukarevac, seizing these villages with little resistance. However, on October 27, a force of Albanian Ballists led by Ibrahim Kelmendi launched an attack on the Bulgarian troops near Žujince, defeating them and killing 74 bulgarian soldiers.^[2]

A few days later following the Bulgarian defeat in Žujince, from 3 to 4 November 1944, Yugoslav Partisans and Bulgarians besieged the village of Sopot near Kumanovo and massacred 68 Albanian civilians, including villagers and guests aged 11 to 95.^[49] The 12th Macedonian Brigade continued operations in the Kumanovo region following this event.^[49]

From 9 to 15 November, after regrouping and launching yet another assault, Yugoslav Partisans successfully captured Preševo and also moved into Gjilan, forcing Ballist forces into the Karadak Mountains.^[10][45][50] Tahir Zaimi reported that the Partisan victory resulted in mass executions of Albanians by “Bulgarian and Serbian-Macedonian Partisans.”^[50]

Simultaneously, on 11 November 1944, the Bulgarian Army attacked the city of Kumanovo, where the Wehrmacht and Albanian forces were defeated and the town as well as the area around was captured by the Bulgarian Army.^[47] However, in the Albanian villages of Miratovac, Lojane, Vaksince, Rajince, Žujince, Albanian Ballists under the command of Ibrahim Kelmendi managed to successfully repel the Bulgarian and Yugoslav partisan advance on 11 November.^[2] Bulgarians then advanced towards Skopje, where from September to mid-November, the Albanian Ballist forces, numbering about 3,600 soldiers, together with the Army Group E led by Sylë Hotla defended Skopje and managed to repel all military attacks of the 16th and 17th brigades of the Kumanovo Partisan Division.^[57][58] The second offensive of the Bulgarians, which attacked well-equipped with the support of tanks and fighter planes in the Skopje area, forced the Germans to evacuate their forces, which they carried out on schedule; their main forces abandoned Skopje on 11–12 November.^[59] The remaining German rearguard abandoned Skopje early on 14 November.^[60] Skopje was seized with the decisive role of Bulgarian troops.^[61][62]

On November 12, at the initiative of Abdullah Krashnica, a meeting was held between him and Ibrahim Kelmendi.^[2] Abdullah Krashnica urged Ibrahim to halt the resistance of the Albanian Ballists against the partisans, noting that they had recently received support from large Bulgarian army units determined to deploy heavy artillery, including aircraft and tanks.^[2] The meeting ended without an agreement, as Ibrahim Kelmendi declared that the Ballists would not withdraw from the front until the Kosovo issue was resolved.^[2]

Around the same time, another meeting took place in Kumanovo between Atlante Koçi (a former Albanian diplomat from Tirana in Sofia who supported the Bulgarian Army) and Shaban Efendi. Koçi asked Shaban to persuade Sulë Hotla to stop resisting the Yugoslav partisans and allow them into Ballist-controlled areas. He assured that civilians would not be harmed, except those proven to have “committed crimes against the partisans,” and said the withdrawal would be temporary—only until the Bulgarian brigades pulled out. Koçi stressed it was pointless to fight such a powerful army and argued the Albanian forces should hold back until the Bulgarians left and Anglo-American forces arrived, which could help achieve the goal of uniting these regions with Albania.^[2]

That same day, Shaban Efendi traveled to Lipkovo to meet Sulë Hotla.^[2] The talks were long and difficult, with other participants including Mulla Dulla, Hamzë Bellanoca, Mulla Hajdari, and Azem Hoxha. While Shaban Efendi urged the Ballists to temporarily withdraw, Sulë Hotla refused, saying, “I cannot agree with the partisans.” He had already positioned his troops in Lipkovo to attack the partisans in Vaksince. Angered by the Serbian-Macedonian partisans’ mistreatment of Albanian civilians, Sulë Hotla defiantly declared, “Let the Bulgarians come; I will respect the Russians, but not the partisans.”^[2] Negotiations lasted into the early morning, ending in an agreement: the Ballists would not attack the partisans in Vaksince, Sulë Hotla would withdraw to Belanovce with his 20 closest men, and the rest would go home. It was also agreed that partisan forces could enter Albanian villages.^[2]

Following the agreement, Partisan units took control of the Albanian-populated areas of the Karadak of Kumanovo.^[63][2] The takeover occurred with little resistance from the local Albanian population.^[63] This is evidenced by a report dated November 16, 1944, from the Headquarters of the XVII Brigade to the Kumanovo Division, stating that there were no armed men left in the villages of Otlja, Lipkovo, Orizare, and Slupčane.^[63]

However, shortly after establishing their presence, the partisan units launched violent actions against the Albanian civilian population.^[63] Partisans carried out killings, massacres, mass imprisonments, and the burning of homes.^[63] Within a day or two, the partisan forces committed atrocities, killing and massacring civilians in the following villages: 17 in Vaksince, 14 in Konjare, 8 in Slupčane, 9 in Orizare, 10 in Otlja (where 27 were also imprisoned), 26 in Matejče, 6 in Vištica, 3 in Lopate, and 13 in Ropalce.^[63]

The abusive behavior of the Partisans forced many Albanians to abandon their homes and seek refuge in the mountain villages of Karadak.^[63][2] According to the same XVII Brigade report from November 16, around 10,000 Albanians had fled from villages such as Nikuštak, Vištica, Ropalce, Matejče, Otlja, Lipkovo, Orizare, and Slupčane to the villages of Strima, Riovcë, Glažnja, Gošince, Dumanovce, and Izvor.^[63]

Albanian resistance

Following the successful Partisan and Bulgarian campaigns against the Ballists and Germans in Kosovo, many local Albanians, especially in Anamorava, began to oppose the Ballist resistance.^[10] Nevertheless, on November 26, 1944, the "Council of Leaders of Karadak," led by Jusuf Baftjari and other Albanian leaders, met above Preševo to unify the Albanian resistance movements in Eastern Kosovo (Karadak, Anamorava, Gollak).^[64] This integration formed Zone IV of Kosovo's Defense under the Second League of Prizren.^[64] During the meeting, the remaining Ballist leaders agreed on planning a recapture of Gjilan. For this, the Ballists attempted to encourage the villagers of Livoç i Epërm in Anamorava, just south of Gjilan, to join their plan to take the city; however, the villagers refused.^[10] The Ballists then asked Ymer Myqybaba, a key commander from Karadak, to defend the western and southern flanks in Karadak by stopping the 16th Macedonian Brigade coming from Preševo toward Gjilan.^[10] Ymer Myqybaba then gave an oath (besa) to stop the brigade. Following the council, Baftjari and other leaders joined forces with Ymer Myqybaba in the Myqybaba village.^[64] On November 30, Partisans launched a large scale offensive in Karadak.^[65][66] Several battles were fought with the most significant being the Battle of Myqybaba, which saw around 120 Albanian Ballists, led by Myqybaba and Baftjari, resist the 16th Macedonian Partisan Brigade of 2,000 men.^[19] Despite repelling multiple assaults, the Ballists eventually retreated in the face of reinforcements totaling 20,000.^[19] The defeated Ballists then withdrew to the Kopilaça mountain.^[65] During the battle, Yugoslav partisans suffered 78 deaths, while the clash also inflicted 12 deaths on the Ballist side, including the death of Commander Ymer Myqybaba.^[66][10] In retaliation, Partisans burned 73 or 93 homes in Myqybaba and many more across Karadak, with flames visible from Gjilan, as if all of Karadak were ablaze.^[64][10] With the failure to defeat the Partisan Brigade, the Ballist intentions of capturing Gjilan were temporarily stalled.^[10]

In mid-November, a noteworthy battle took place in Blace of Karadak, specifically at a location known as Guri i Bardhë. The Balli Kombëtar forces, specifically the Bllacë battalion led by Abdyl Durra, with support from the forces of Tefik Tanisheci and Din Hoxha, succeeded in decisively defeating the third battalion of the 16th Macedonian Brigade, forcing it to retreat toward the villages of Brazda and Čučer-Sandevo.^[67] Days later, on November 16, 1944, the village of Blace was surrounded by the same 16th Macedonian Brigade of the Yugoslav partisans, commanded by Gligorije Šaranović-"Gliša, which imposed a complete lockdown, preventing villagers from leaving. Armed guards were stationed every 50 meters, restricting movement.^[68][69][70] The brigade entered the village on November 14, assuring residents they would be safe and urging them to prepare food for the soldiers. Many villagers remained, believing the promises.^[68][69][70] After three days, the villagers were gathered at the mosque, where they were detained, beaten, and verbally abused.^[68][69][70] The brigade then took a significant number of them—approximately 130–140 individuals of varying ages—to a site known as "Stanet e Toçit.", where they were systematically massacred.^[68][69][70] The actions of the 16th Macedonian Brigade were claimed to be aimed at eliminating perceived threats, including the Balli Kombëtar.^[68][69][70] The deaths of individuals, including children and the elderly, raised serious questions about the motivations behind these killings. Witnesses reported that the perpetrators returned to the scene later, attempting to conceal their actions by destroying graves. Reports indicated that on November 16 and 17, 128 Albanians were killed in Blace.^[68][69][70]

On December 1, 1944, during a meeting in Tërpezë (Viti), Ballists allied with Nazi Germany decided to unite to protect Gjilan and Ferizaj from Partisan and Chetnik atrocities.^[71][72][43] Subsequently, the Committee of Albanian Resistance for Eastern Kosovo was established on December 17, 1944, in Zarbincë, with Mulla Idriz Gjilani as commander in chief.^[72][43] The committee included resistance leaders from Gollak and Karadak, aiming to implement defensive measures against attacks along the Eastern Kosovo border.^[71][72][43]

On December 4, 1944, 16th Macedonian Partisan Brigade massacred about 100 men, aged 16 to 75, were killed in Iseuk, while other massacres also occurred in the villages of Myçybabë, Kurbali, Ilincë, Sefer, Maxhere, Depcë, Kokaj, Sllubicë and Gruhalia.^[65] In Sefer alone, 25 young men from 56 households were killed, with others imprisoned in Vranje, Preševo, and Kumanovo—most of whom never returned.^[65]

On December 19, 1944, the 17th Macedonian Brigade, with 1,800 soldiers, advanced towards Desivojca, committing acts of violence against civilians.^{[31][71][73][43]} In response, Ballists led by Sylë Zarbica and Mulla Idriz Gjilani mobilized to assist the villagers.^{[31][71][73][43]} On December 20, they launched a coordinated attack, encircling and decimating a battalion of Partisans.^{[31][71][73][43]} The battle resulted in the complete destruction of the 17th Macedonian Brigade.^{[31][71][73][43]}

By December 21, 1944, Ballists reached Përlepnica, finalizing their plan to take Gjilan.^[65] Mulla Idriz Gjilani, the leader of the forces from Anamorava, opposed the attack, warning that while they could seize the city, they couldn't hold it, urging instead a guerrilla approach.^[65] But younger leaders, inspired by prior victories, pushed forward, launching an assault on December 23.^[65] On 23 December 1944, following this decisive victory in the Gollak Highlands, local fighters from Desivojca and other parts of Gollak and Hashania, along with soldiers from Karadak under the command of Jusuf Baftjari, Sylë Hotla and others, marched into Gjilan with the aim of reclaiming the city.^[44] Ballists managed to take control of parts of Gjilan early that morning, while Macedonian units and local authorities fled the battle.^[65] However, Partisan leaders, including Vlado Popović, saw this as an opportunity to draw the resistance in, then counterattack with reinforcements from Pristina and Ferizaj, which arrived by midday, turning the tide.^[65] Realizing the strength of the incoming partisan brigades, Albanian forces withdrew to Kamenica, while other Ballists were forced into the Mountains.^[65][44] Partially due to the desertation of Mulla Idriz Gjilani and his forces from Anamorava.^[65] The failed assault intensified anti-Albanian measures.^[65] A curfew was imposed, forbidding Albanians from moving within or entering the city, and allowing Serbs and Macedonian partisans a 24-hour window for looting and violence.^[65] Mass arrests, killings, and looting followed, targeting all ages, including women and children.^[65] Prisoners were tortured in local facilities, often murdered by night, with city streets lined with corpses.^[65]

Violence and terror soon engulfed the villages around Gjilan, where Albanian casualties from clashes with Serbian and Bulgarian forces, as well as Partisan reprisals, mounted from until March 1945.^[65] The Gjilan region, which includes parts of Karadak, Gollak and Anamorava, suffered some of Kosovo's highest losses, though exact figures remain uncertain.^[65] In the village of Çarr, on January 5, 1945, OZNA forces detained and executed 23 individuals. In Llashticë, Karadak, the bodies of 12 Albanian villagers who had been killed without judicial process remained unburied for 3–4 days, and an additional 10 people were reported killed in the village.^[63] Reports indicate that similar events took place in various villages, including Shipashnicë, Hogosht, Kopërnicë, Vruçec, Livoç i Ulët, Tërpezë, Koretin, Livoç i Epërm, and others.^[63] Other villages, such as Sedllar, Desivojca, Karaçevë, Kranidell, Koretinë, and Lisovicë, are also recorded as having experienced similar events.^[63] In Lisovicë, seven family members reportedly lost their lives, and in Velegllavë, there were reports of 35 people killed, including seven women and two children.^[63] Additional incidents were reported in Carravajkë and Stanec in Karadak, and in Anamorava, especially in Pozharan.^[63] Vesel Rexhepi, estimated 4,500 Albanians killed or massacred in the city of Gjilan alone, while Tahir Zajmi suggested nearly 8,000 deaths across the broader area—though this number is likely exaggerated.^[65] According to the diary of an Partisan member, approximately 3,000 Albanians were killed in Gjilan between December 23 and 29, 1944.^[65] Official court data from 1954, however, records 254 executions, including 245 Albanians, though this figure is considered incomplete.^[65] A more probable estimate for the region's casualties is between 3,000 and 4,000.^[65]

Third phase

Albanian guerilla resistance

In early 1945, significant Yugoslav military and paramilitary forces were deployed in Kosovo.^[63] Initially, all eight Kosovar brigades were active in the region, alongside the 25th, 26th, and 27th brigades of the 46th Serbian Division. In addition to regular army units, rear-line military organs were also mobilized to carry out policy objectives.^[63] These formations reportedly conducted operations across Kosovo and other Albanian-populated areas. In the Gjilan region, in the village of Çarr, on January 5, 1945, OZNA forces detained and executed 23 individuals.^[63] On January 6, 1945, Isuf Pidiqi, a leader in the Karadak Gorge, was summoned to the Zhegër police station under the pretense of a brief discussion.^[30] However, the meeting was a trap orchestrated by OZNA to capture and eliminate him.^[30] During the ambush, Isuf Pidiqi managed to seize a police officer's rifle and killed three OZNA officers—Dimitrije Mihajlović, Tihomir Petković, and Stanimir Petković—while wounding another.^[30] As he attempted to escape, OZNA forces retaliated with gunfire, fatally wounding him.^[30]

In Llashticë, Karadak, the bodies of 12 Albanian villagers who had been killed without judicial process remained unburied for 3–4 days, and an additional 10 people were reported killed in the village.^[63] Reports indicate that similar events took place in various villages, including Shipashnicë, Hogosht, Kopërnicë, Vruçec, Lower Livoq, Tërpezë, Koretin, Livoç i Epërm, and others.^[63]

Other villages, such as Sedllar, Desivojcë, Karaçevë, Kranidell, Koretinë, and Lisovicë, are also recorded as having experienced similar events. In Lisovicë, seven family members reportedly lost their lives, and in Velegllavë, there were reports of 35 people killed, including seven women and two children.^[63] Additional incidents were reported in Carravajkë and Stanec in Karadak, and in Anamorava, especially in Pozharan.^[63]

After the end of World War II and the communist Yugoslav reoccupation of Kosovo, a segment of Kosovo's nationalist military and political leaders opted to stay in the country, remaining devoted to the cause of the Second League of Prizren.^[11][74] Following the takeover the Yugoslav army inflicted severe punishment upon the population of Karadak, resulting in significant casualties among them.^[75] The remaining Ballist groups engaged in guerrilla warfare in Karadak, including those led by Sylë Hotla, Ali Staneci, Hetë Koka, Hasan Ali Remniku, Jusuf Baftjari, Hajdar Malisheva, and others.^[11] Eventually, representatives of these groups convened at the Kopilaça Congress on August 15–16, 1945, organized by the remaining Ballists and Kachaks in Karadak.^[11][76] During the congress, Albanian leaders pledged to continue fighting against the communist occupiers.^[11][77] However, in October 1945, Albanian Ballists in Karadak received a letter from Muharrem Bajraktari and Mid'hat Frashëri, urging them to flee to Greece.^[11] In response, Mulla Idriz Gjilani intervened, advising the resistance units not to abandon Kosovo but to persist in the fight.^[11] By the end of 1946, Yugoslav authorities initiated a comprehensive military operation against Albanian Resistance forces across Kosovo. Despite this crackdown, only 36 rebels, mostly from Karadak, out of 1,735 fighters distributed among 55 guerrilla groups, survived and continued the resistance beyond March 1947.^[11]

After numerous failed operations to capture or eliminate Jusuf Baftjari and his Cheta, the Yugoslav Partisans turned to treachery.^[78] Vojo Vojvodić, a Montenegrin leader of the Yugoslav Partisans, assured Jusuf Baftjari that if he surrendered, he would face imprisonment under the Amnesty Law, rather than execution.^[78] The relentless torture inflicted by the Yugoslav Partisans on their families and friends, along with the discovery of their hideouts, became unbearable.^[78] Even Jusuf Baftjari, realizing that all possibilities for continued resistance were closing, surrendered togetether with his two sons, Selim and Qazim, in Uglar on February 20, 1947.^[78] Daut Xhelili of Pogragjë, a former activist, recalled being present when the Yugoslav Partisans brought Jusuf Baftjari to Pogragjë, noting that he refused to surrender his rifle and kissed its barrel.^[78] Addressing Vojvodić, Jusuf Baftjari explained his surrender, citing Vojvodić's Montenegrin heritage and the trust that should be inherent in a Montenegrin's word, implying that without this trust, the Partisans would not have captured him alive.^[78] Shortly after however, Jusuf Baftjari was sentenced to death by the Yugoslav court in Gjilan and was executed on July 17, 1948.^[78]

Historical accounts from both Albanian and Yugoslav communist sources indicate that the Albanian national resistance in the Karadak region of Kumanovo was one of the last to be suppressed in Macedonia.^[79] This armed resistance is linked to Sylë Hotla and eight of his closest associates.^[79] Among them were Ali Sylë Staneci, Sami Shabedini from Orizarja, Hamzë Bilalli from Bellanoca with his son Arifi, and four brothers from Breza, the sons of Ajet Emin: Aliu, Shefkiu, Iseni, and Rasimi.^[79] These nine individuals ultimately fell into an ambush set by OZNA on Mount Pelister, near the Yugoslav-Greek Border on October 11, 1947.^[79]

In early October 1951, the state security service of Yugoslavia (UDBA) planned to liquidate Hasan Remniku and Mustafa Kokaj, the last of the Ballist and Kachak rebel leaders.^[80] UDBA agents were sent, posing as people who would help smuggle Kokaj and Remniku across the border into Albania. On October 6, 1951, on their way to Albania, the rebel leaders ran into a well prepared ambush set up by Yugoslav forces. Fighting between the Yugoslav and Ballist forces lasted three days, in which Kokaj and Remniku and most of their soldiers were killed.^[15]

Aftermath

Following the quelling of the uprising, Yugoslav forces began targeting the Albanian population.^[81] According to the available data, which is believed to be incomplete, the regions of Karadak, Anamorava, and Gollak suffered the following casualties, including both militants and civilians: Preševo with 600 victims, Bujanovac 500, Gjilan between 1,200 and 8,000, Skopje 1,400, and Kumanovo 700, Totaling approximately 11,200 casualties, all at the hands of Bulgarian and Yugoslav troops.^[82] The infamous 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg mainly operated in the conflict and was stationed in the Albanian- and German-occupied regions around Bujanovac, Preševo, and Kumanovo.^[6] Later, it also took part in battles near Gjilan. During its operations in Karadak, the division primarily carried out ethnic cleansing against Orthodox Slavs and Romani people.^[6] Remnants of the division also conducted military operations in the Vardar Valley, south of Karadak and managed to secure the withdrawal of German Army Group E.^[6]

The 16th, 17th, and 18th Macedonian Brigades were active in the southern parts of Karadak and fought against the Ballists.^[12] Meanwhile, the Second Kosovska Brigade was active in the northern parts of Karadak, Anamorava, and Gollak .^[83] According to official data, the 16th, 17th, and 18th Macedonian Brigades lost 474 fighters in fighting with the Ballists.^[12] British reports suggest that the Macedonian Partisans had 1,500 fighters killed in the First Battle of Preševo alone.^[13]