Iran's ghost fleet

Iran's ghost fleet refers to a network of oil tankers, shell companies, and covert logistical operations used by the Islamic Republic of Iran to secretly export oil in defiance of international sanctions, primarily those imposed by the United States. The fleet plays a central role in sustaining Iran’s sanctioned economy, particularly in funding the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and its foreign operations.

Background

Following the re-imposition of U.S. sanctions after Washington’s 2018 withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), Iran turned to covert oil exports to maintain its revenues. With the formal energy sector increasingly isolated from global markets, Iran constructed a clandestine supply chain supported by hundreds of maritime vessels operating under false identities, with manipulated tracking systems and fraudulent documentation.^[1][2][3]

Structure and operations

The ghost fleet consists of vessels with obscured ownership, often registered under flags of convenience in jurisdictions such as Panama and the Marshall Islands. Many ships operate with Automatic Identification System (AIS) transponders disabled, engage in ship-to-ship transfers, and employ deceptive shipping practices like falsified bills of lading or misrepresented cargo origins. These practices have enabled Iran to move millions of barrels of crude oil to countries such as China, Syria, and Venezuela, circumventing sanctions enforcement.^[4][5]

Modus Operandi

Flag hopping

Ships frequently change their country of registration ("flag hopping") to obscure their ownership and avoid detection. This is often done through registries with limited oversight, such as Panama, which currently flags about 17% of the identified ghost fleet vessels.^[4][5]

Shell companies and ownership obfuscation

The fleet relies on a web of shell and front companies, often registered in jurisdictions like Hong Kong, the UAE, Liberia, and Panama, to mask the true ownership and operation of the vessels.^[4][5]

Digital and physical deception

Ships may alter their physical markings, change names, and manipulate tracking systems (such as turning off AIS transponders) to avoid detection. Ship-to-ship (STS) transfers are conducted in international waters, especially outside port limits in Southeast Asia, to further obscure the origin and destination of the oil.^[6][2]

AIS Manipulation

Vessels routinely disable or spoof their Automatic Identification System (AIS) transponders, making them invisible to global tracking systems or broadcasting false locations.^[3][7]

Vessel name changes and repainting

Tankers are frequently renamed and repainted, further frustrating efforts to link them to Iranian interests.^[3]

Ship-to-Ship (STS) transfers

Oil is often transferred between ships in international waters, especially near the Gulf of Oman, off Iraq, and near the UAE, to obscure the origin of the cargo.^[3][7]

Deceptive documentation and blending

Iranian oil is sometimes blended with oil from other countries and shipped with falsified documents listing incorrect origins, allowing it to enter legitimate markets.^[3][7]

IRGC involvement

The IRGC is believed to control or benefit from a significant portion of the ghost fleet's activities. According to Reuters, nearly half of Iran’s oil exports are under the control of the IRGC and its affiliates, often via front companies and cutout operators.^[8] These revenues are used to fund military operations and proxy groups across the Middle East, as well as to prop up allied regimes.^[9][1][10]

Notable case studies

In February 2024, the U.S. Department of Justice announced seizures and criminal charges against individuals and entities linked to a billion-dollar trafficking network that had delivered illicit Iranian oil to foreign buyers using a series of front companies, tankers, and brokers.^[11] Among the sanctioned facilitators was an Iranian-linked network operating through Turkey, the UAE, and Malaysia.^[12]

Chinese purchasers and global impact

Despite sanctions, Chinese refiners remain the primary recipients of Iranian oil via the ghost fleet. United Against Nuclear Iran (UANI) has documented extensive evidence of China-based entities purchasing Iranian crude under falsified documentation, often labeled as Malaysian or Omani origin.^[4] This illicit trade undermines international sanctions and contributes to increased regional tensions.^[13][14][15]

Sanctions and enforcement efforts

U.S. authorities have targeted the ghost fleet through sanctions, seizures, and criminal indictments. UANI and other watchdogs regularly publish updated maps and trackers of Iranian tankers, some of which are refurbished vessels rebranded under new flags and ownership structures.^[13] The U.S. government has also seized multiple cargoes of smuggled oil and prosecuted those aiding Iran’s efforts to bypass restrictions.^{[16][17][2][18]}

Notable vessels and companies

Recent U.S. sanctions have targeted specific vessels, including:

• BENDIGO (IMO: 9289491)
• CARNATIC (IMO: 9304655)
• SALVIA (IMO: 9297319)
• LUNA PRIME (IMO: 9174220)
• ELZA (IMO: 9221671)
• GOODWIN (IMO: 9379703)
• ANHONA (IMO: 9354521)
• WEN YAO (IMO: 9288095)
• SPIRIT OF CASPER (IMO: 9224271)
• CRYSTAL ROSE (IMO: 9292228)
• CARINA (IMO: 9240512)
• DIMITRA II (IMO: 9208215)
• TYCHE I (IMO: 9247390)
• SATINA (IMO: 9308778)
• CROSS OCEAN (IMO: 9251810)
• AVENTUS I (IMO: 9280873)
• DAVINA (IMO: 9259367)
• BERG 1 (IMO: 9262168)
• VORAS (IMO: 9203265)
• HORNET (IMO: 9197844)
• SHANAYE QUEEN (IMO: 9242118)
• CAROL (IMO: 9070072)
• OCTANS (IMO: 9224295)^[19][20][2]

Links to terrorist financing

According to the Global Fight Against Terrorism Funding (GFATF), the ghost fleet serves as a revenue stream for organizations designated as terrorist groups, such as Hezbollah, by laundering funds and transferring oil revenues through opaque banking and shipping networks.^[21] The IRGC-Quds Force also uses this network to finance operations in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen.^[22]

See also

• Sanctions against Iran
• Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
• United Against Nuclear Iran
• Oil smuggling in Iran
• Venezuela Iran ghost flights
• China's dark fleet