Celali rebellions

The Celali rebellions (Turkish: Celalî ayaklanmaları) were a series of rebellions in Anatolia of irregular troops led by bandit chiefs and provincial officials known as celalî, celâli, or jelālī,^[1] against the authority of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th and early to mid-17th centuries.

Celali rebellion
Date 1519-1610 Location Anatolia Result The rebellion suppressed
Belligerents
Celali rebels	Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Bozoklu Şeyh Celâl Baba Zünnûn İsyanı Kalender Çelebi İsyanı Katırcıoğlu Mehmet Pasha Karayazıcı Deli Hasan Parmaksız Ali Janbulad Kalenderoğlu Tavil Ahmed Abaza Mehmed Pasha Varvar Ali Paşha	Selim I Suleiman the Magnificent Mehmed III Ahmed I Kuyucu Murad Pasha

Primary sources

Simeon of Poland travelled across the Ottoman Empire from 1608 to 1618, and covered the impact that the Celali rebellions had on the cities of Anatolia.^[2] Arakel of Tabriz chronicled events from 1602 to 1662.^[3] Armenians commonly wrote long colophons about the Celali rebellions at the end of manuscripts.^[4]

Background

Grigor Daranaḷts‘i, the second Armenian bishop of Rodosto,^[5] wrote that the Celali rebellions were caused by Sultan Mehmed III neglecting Anatolia despite its corruption, unjust land seizures, and famine.^[6] He wrote that the Celali first rose up in Kemah around 1591.^[7]

The Celâlî rebellions emerged as groups dissatisfied with Ottoman rule and Shiite Turkmen groups, instigated by the Safavids, rebelled against the state. From the late 16th century onwards, they became a major issue and took on a different character. The Ottoman understanding of the state considered these rebellions as "hurûc ale's-sultan" (revolt), and this expression was frequently used in the sources.^[8]

The major uprisings involved the sekbans (irregular troops of musketeers) and sipahis (cavalrymen maintained by land grants). The rebellions were not attempts to overthrow the Ottoman government but were reactions to a social and economic crisis stemming from a number of factors: demographic pressure following a period of unprecedented population growth during the 16th century, climatic hardship associated with the Little Ice Age, a depreciation of the currency, and the mobilization of thousands of sekban musketeers for the Ottoman army during its wars with the Habsburgs and Safavids, who turned to banditry when demobilized. Celali leaders often sought no more than to be appointed to provincial governorships within the empire, while others fought for specific political causes,^[9] such as Abaza Mehmed Pasha's effort to topple the Janissary government established after the regicide of Osman II in 1622, or Abaza Hasan Pasha's desire to overthrow the grand vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha.^{[citation needed]} The Ottoman leaders understood why the Celali rebels were making demands, so they gave some of the Celali leaders government jobs to stop the rebellion and make them part of the system. The Ottoman army used force to defeat those who didn't get jobs and kept fighting. The Celali rebellions ended when the most powerful leaders became part of the Ottoman system and the weaker ones were defeated by the Ottoman army. The janissaries and former rebels who had joined the Ottomans fought to keep their new government jobs.^[9]

Rebellions

The Ottoman Empire in 1590, at the outset of the Celali rebellions.

The first revolt termed as such occurred in 1519, during Sultan Selim I's reign, near Tokat Province under the leadership of Celâl, an Alevi preacher. Celâl's name was later used by Ottoman histories as a general term for rebellious groups in Anatolia, most of whom bore no particular connection to the original Celâl.^[10]

In 1598 a sekban leader, Karayazıcı Abdülhalim, united the dissatisfied groups in the Anatolia Eyalet and established a base of power in Sivas and Dulkadir, where he was able to force towns to pay tribute to him.^[1] He was offered the governorship of Çorum, but refused the post and when Ottoman forces were sent against them, he retreated with his forces to Urfa, seeking refuge in a fortified castle, which became the center of resistance for 18 months. Out of fear that his forces would mutiny against him, he left the castle, was defeated by government forces, and died some time later in 1602 from natural causes. His brother Deli Hasan then seized Kutahya, in western Anatolia, but later he and his followers were won over by grants of governorships.^[1]

The Celali had 50,000 cavalry in 1602 according to Grigor Daranaḷts‘i.^[7]

Simeon of Poland wrote that half of the Armenian households in Tokat were either dispersed or killed by the Celalis and the same happened to 1,400 of the 2,000 Armenian households in Sivas. Bingöl and Eğil were completely destroyed by the Celalis.^[2]

Bursa, the former capital of the Ottoman Empire, was sacked by the Celalis in 1607.^[11]

David, the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem from 1583 to 1615, acquired a debt of 40,000 kuruş as pilgrims, his main source of revenue, stopped coming to Jerusalem due to Celali raids.^[12]

A drought occurred in eastern Anatolia in 1599, and this produced a famine in 1600.^[13] Another famine occurred from 1607 to 1608, and Arakel of Tabriz wrote about allegations of cannibalism during this famine.^[14]

Arakel of Tabriz wrote that from 1605 to 1606, the Celali tortured and killed the inhabitants of Yerevan in search of provisions and supplies.^[15]

Kuyucu Murad Pasha was given the nickname kuyucu (well-digger) for the mass graves he created during his campaign against the Celali from 1606 to 1608.^[16]

At the Hovhannavank monastery the Celalis beat a friar and hung him from his testicles before he showed them the location of treasure according to Arakel of Tabriz; the friar was killed.^[17]

Thousands of Armenians fled from their homeland due to the rebellions. Simeon of Poland noted that all 200 Armenian households in Egypt were refugees.^[18]

Legacy

Garegin Srvandztiants, writing in the 19th century, noted that there were still a large amount of Kemah hamlets and villages in ruin from the Celali rebellions.^[19]

See also

• Abaza rebellion
• Sekban
• Janissary revolts
• Devşirme