Monergism

Not to be confused with Monoenergism.

In Christian theology, monergism primarily denotes the belief that God alone is the agent of human salvation. Divine monergism is most commonly associated with Augustinian, Lutheran and Reformed soteriology, the latter of which includes certain strands of Anglicanism. It is also a key component of some forms of Christian universalism. Secondarily, monergism can also refer to the belief that humans alone determine their salvation. Humanistic monergism is commonly associated with Pelagianism. Both perspectives contrast with synergism, which asserts that divine and human cooperation is essential for the conversion process.

Definition

Monergism derives from the Greek monos (sole) and ergon (work) and refers to a single source acting alone.^[1][2] In Christian theology, it primarily denotes the belief that God is the sole agent in human salvation.^[3][4] This view, known as "divine monergism," is characteristic of Calvinist and Augustinian soteriology.^[5] It describes a process in which God alone authors for every step of salvation, without human participation.^[6][7]

Monergism can also refer the belief that humans are the sole agents of their salvation, a view known as "humanistic monergism" and associated with Pelagianism.^[8][9] Both perspectives contrast with synergism, which holds that divine and human cooperation is necessary in the conversion process.^[4]

Theology

Historical developments

Augustine presents Lydia of Thyatira as an example of monergistic salvation.^[10]

Augustine of Hippo (354–430) was the first to articulate the concept of divine monergism within Christianity.^[11][12] In response to the humanistic monergism of Pelagianism, he argued that prevenient grace is necessary to prepare the human will for conversion.^[13] This view incorporated a compatibilist form of theological determinism,^[14] and implied a form of unconditional election.^[15][16] Divine monergism later became a foundational principle in Lutheran theology, most notably expressed in the Formula of Concord (1577).^[17][18] It also played a central role in Calvinist theology,^[5] shaping Reformed confessions such as the Canons of Dort (1618–19)^[19] and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646).^[20]

Divine monergism and ordo salutis

In orthodox Calvinism, the classical ordo salutis follows a sequence of effectual calling, then regeneration, and finally faith.^[21] Lutheranism largely mirrors this sequence.^[21] Some theologians argue that because the first steps of effectual calling and regeneration are passive, then the whole conversion must also be entirely passive and monergistic in nature.^[22] However, certain Calvinists advocate for a revised ordo, still claimed to uphold monergism, while placing faith before regeneration.^[23][21] A similar modification occurs in Molinist-influenced Calvinist revisions, which likewise reorder the sequence to place faith before regeneration.^[24][25][26] Despite these differences, both orthodox and revised Calvinist perspectives affirm that the steps of salvation are ultimately determined by God.^[27][3][6]

Divine monergism and Christian universalism

Within a Christian worldview affirming divine monergism, such as that of the Reformed or the Augustinian traditions, God can theoretically elect whom He wills based on His sovereignty.^[28] If He chose to elect all humans, their past and future sins would be forgiven, and all would irresistibly come to faith during their lifetime. This scenario constitutes a necessary form of Christian universalism, which is rejected by Reformed or Augustinian theologians.^[28][29] They commonly argue that the greatest good occurs when God is maximally glorified, and they believe this does not happen in a world where everyone is saved.^[30][31] Nevertheless, some Protestant thinkers, such as Thomas Talbott, have proposed an alternative form of monergistic universalism. According to this view, God’s irresistible grace will ultimately extend to every individual—even beyond death—thus explaining why not all are brought to faith within their lifetimes.^[32] A further development of this idea is found in an unconditional model of monergistic universalism, as articulated for example by Hosea Ballou.^[33][34] In this framework, salvation is granted independently of personal faith and remains accessible to all at any point in time.^[35]

Denominational variations

Lutheran theology

An illustration of Article XVIII ('Of Free Will') of the Augsburg Confession.^[36]

Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects.^[37] He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation.^[38][39] Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism.^[40] Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism.^[41] The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.^[42]

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation.^[43] Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view.^[17][44] While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.^[45][17]

The Lutheran Churches teach monergism with regard to the doctrine of justification; the Lutheran Small Catechism states that “I believe that I cannot by my own reason or strength believe in Jesus Christ, my Lord, or come to Him, but the Holy Spirit has called me by the gospel, enlightened me with His gifts, sanctified and kept me in the true faith.”^[46]

With regard to sanctification, Lutheran cleric Jordan Cooper writes that "sanctification is initiated through the work of God apart from human effort".^[47] Lutheran scholar Gerhard Forde explained that "a key tenet of the Lutheran view of sanctification is that cooperation must not ignore grace."^[48] Forde said, with regard to sanctifiation, that "There is a kind of growth and progress, it is to be hoped, but it is growth in grace—a growth in coming to be captivated ore and more, if we can so speak, by the totality, the unconditionality of the grace of God."^[48] Lutheran theologian Mark Ellingsen states that there is an "openness to Synergism one finds affirmed in official Lutheran documents. With warnings, the synergistic joining of our will with God’s grace is not rejected (Formula of Concord, SD II.90). Of course this openness is endorsed along with the strong Lutheran commitment to prevenient grace (the belief that grace precedes any synergistic cooperation), for the Holy Spirit is given credit for our faith and for the surrender of the will to God (Romans 3:21-28; Galatians 3:10-14; Luther’s Works, Vo.26, p.106; Small Catechism, II.6)."^[49] The Formula of Concord teaches "But the intellect and will of the unregenerate man are nothing else than subiectum convertendum, that is, that which is to be converted, it being the intellect and will of a spiritually dead man, in whom the Holy Ghost works conversion and renewal, towards which work man’s will that is to be converted does nothing, but suffers God alone to work in him, until he is regenerate; and then he works also with the Holy Ghost [cooperates] that which is pleasing to God in other good works that follow, in the way and to the extent fully set forth above" (SD II.90).^[49][50]

Reformed theology

In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence.^[27] For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God.^[51] In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism.^[52] Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.^[53]

Anglican theology

Anglicanism originally inclined toward monergism due to its Lutheran and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations.^[54][55] The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition.^[56] They reflect a complex interplay of Calvinist influence, Catholic practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles.^[57][58] Today, in some Anglican denominations, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.^[56]

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases.^[59] Early Anglican leaders such as Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction.^[54] However, following the Stuart Restoration (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism.^[60] Afterward, the Evangelical movement within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its Reformed roots.^[61] Related groups like the Church Society tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.^[62]

Conversely, High church and Anglo-Catholic traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the early Church Fathers and emphasizing the sacramental life, human free will, and cooperation with divine grace. Proto-Arminian figures like Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) and Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call.^[58] In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as George Pretyman Tomline (1750–1827) and Harold Browne (1811–1891) also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light.^[63][64]

Objections

Since all forms of divine monergism (both soteriological and exhaustive) rely on unconditional election, God determines the fate of individuals, whether felicity or reprobation, either directly or indirectly. When divine monergism permits the existence of some reprobates, it can give the impression that God's love is both restricted and arbitrary.^[65]

Monoenergism, the heretical belief that Christ had only one "energy" (energeia), was propagated during the first half of the 7th century.^[66] In historical soteriological forms of divine monergism, Jesus was seen as being predetermined to obey the Father's will.^[66] Consequently, the Father alone was the commanding energy, to which Christ's energy was entirely subjected. Some have suggested that monergism logically entails monoenergism.^[67] Conversely, if Christ was not predetermined, this would allow for the possibility of a non-monoenergistic synergy.^[68]

See also

• Christianity portal

• Augustinian soteriology
• Jansenism
• Monoenergism
• Synergism
• Theological determinism