Lower Sepik languages

The Lower Sepik a.k.a. Nor–Pondo languages are a small language family of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. They were identified as a family by K Laumann in 1951 under the name Nor–Pondo, and included in Donald Laycock's now-defunct 1973 Sepik–Ramu family.

Lower Sepik
Nor–Pondo
Geographic distribution	East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea
Linguistic classification	a primary language family
Subdivisions	Nor Pondo?
Language codes
Glottolog	lowe1423

Classification

The original conception of the family, under the name Nor–Pondo, is as follows:

Nor–Pondo	Nor family Murik (Nor) Kopar Pondo family Chambri Karawari (Tabriak), Yimas Angoram (Pondo)

Malcolm Ross (2005) broke up the Nor branch (and thus renamed the family Lower Sepik) because Murik does not share the characteristic /p/s of the first- and second-person pronouns of Kopar and the Pondo languages, so the latter may form a group: Murik vs Kopar–Pondo. Ross classified Lower Sepik as one branch of a Ramu–Lower Sepik language family.

Foley (2005) tentatively proposes that Chambri and Angoram may be primary branches: Nor, Chambari, Karawari–Yimas, Angoram. Usher, following Foley, keeps Nor together and breaks up Pondo.^[1] Neither accept the connection to Ramu.

Foley (2018) and Usher (2020)

Foley (2018) and Usher (2020) agree on the following classification.^[2][3]

Lower Sepik family

• Kopar–Murik (Nor)
  • Murik
  • Kopar
• Angoram
• Chambri
• Karawari–Yimas
  • Karawari
  • Yimas

Foley notes that Angoram appears to be closer to Murik–Kopar, and Chambri to Karawari–Yimas, but Foley (2018: 213) leaves them as separate branches pending further evidence.

Phonology

Except for Yimas-Karawari, Lower Sepik languages typically have the following six-vowel system.^[4]

i		u
e	ə	o
a

Yimas-Karawari has only four vowels.^[4]

i	u
ə
a

Proto-language

Proto-Lower Sepik
Reconstruction of	Lower Sepik languages

Pronouns

The pronouns reconstructed for the proto-language are,

Proto–Lower Sepik (Ross)

I	*ama	we two	*ka-i, *ka-pia	we few	*(p)a-ŋk-i-t	we all	*a-i, *a-pia, *i-pi
thou	*nɨmi	you two	*ka-u, *ka-pua	you few	*(p)a-ŋk-u-t	you all	*a-u, *a-pu, *i-pu(a)
s/he	*mɨn	they two	*mɨnɨmp ? (M), *mpɨ ? (F)	they few	*mɨŋkɨ-t	they all	*mump (M), *pum (F)

Proto-Nor–Pondo (Foley)

I	*ama	we two	*ka-i, *ka-pa-i	we few	*(pa)ŋk-it	we all	*a-i, *a-pa-i, *(y)i-i, *(y)i-pa-i
thou	*mi	you two	*ka-u, *ka-pa-u	you few	*(pa)ŋk-ut	you all	*a-u, *a-pa-u, *(y)i-u, *(y)i-pa-u
s/he	*mən	they two	?	they few	*mɨŋkɨ	they all	*mump ?

Lexicon

A phonological reconstruction of proto-Lower Sepik has been proposed by Foley (2005).^[4] Foley's (2005) lexical reconstructions are provided below.

Proto-Lower Sepik reconstructions by Foley (2005)

gloss	proto-Lower Sepik	Yimas	Karawi	Chambri	Angrm	Murik	Kopar
one	*mb(w)ia-	mpa-	mba-	mbwia-	mbia-	abe	mbatep
two	*ri-pa-	-rpal	ripay	-ri	-(lɨ)par	kobo	kombari
three	*-ram	-ramnaw	-rianmaw	-ram	-elɨm	keroŋgo	keremɨŋ
person	*nor	nar-maŋ	yarmasɨnar	noranan		nor	nor
male	*pon	panmal	panmari		pondo	puin
woman	*ŋay	ŋay	asay	kaye	nuŋor	ŋai	nana
water	*arɨm	arɨm	arɨm	arɨm	alɨm	arɨm	arɨm
fire	*awr	awt	awi	ayɨr	aluŋ	awr	awr
sun		tɨmal	sɨmari	sɨnmari	mbwino	akɨn	akɨn
moon	*m(w)il ?	mɨla	tuŋkwi	mwɨl	mɨle	karewan	karep
star		awak	suŋkwiɲcirim	suŋgwi	areɲjo	moai	kinaŋ
canoe	*kay	kay	kay	ke	ke	gain	kain
house		nam	yam	kurɨr	nam	iran	indan
village	*num	num	imuŋka	num	num	nomot	numot
breast	*nɨŋgay	nɨŋay	ɲjay	nɨŋke	ŋge	niŋgen	niŋgin
tooth	*sisiŋk ?	tɨrɨŋ	sɨsɨŋ	sraŋk	sisiŋ	asarap	asirap
blood	*ya-	yat	yay	yari	ayakone	yaran	yuwaran
bone	*sariŋamp	tanɨm	tanɨm	anamp	salɨŋ	sariŋib̩	sarekimp
tongue	*minɨŋ	mɨɲɨŋ	mumɨɲɨŋ	tɨbulaniŋk	mɨnɨŋ	menɨŋ	mimiŋ
eye	*tambri	tuŋkuruŋ	sampɨs	sɨsiŋk	tambli	nabrin	nambrin
nose		tɨkay	ipun	wambusu	naŋɨm	daur	imbot
leg	*namuŋk	pamuŋ	pamuŋ	namaŋk	namuŋ		namɨŋ
hair		wapwi	wampi	yawi	mbwikmaley	dwar	ruar
ear	*kwand-	kwantumuŋ	kwandukas	kukunam	kwandum	karekep	kundot
egg	*awŋ	awŋ	yawŋ	awŋk	awŋ	gaug	awŋ
leaf	*nɨmpramp	nɨmprɨm	yimprɨm	nɨmpramp	namblum	nabirɨk	nɨmbiraŋ
yesterday / tomorrow	*ŋarɨŋ	ŋarɨŋ	arɨŋ	namasɨnɨŋ	nakɨmɨn	ŋarɨŋ	rari
oar	*(mɨ)naŋ	muraŋ	mɨnaŋ	naŋk	inap	inaŋ	naŋ
betelnut	*poruŋ	patn	payn	muntɨkɨn	parɨŋ	porog	puruŋ
lime	*awi(r)	awi	as	ayɨr	awer	air	air
pig	*numpran	numpran	impian	numpran	imbar	nɨmbren	nɨmbren
crocodile		manpa	manpo	ayi	walami	oramen	uri
snake	*wakɨn	wakɨn	wakɨn	wan	paruŋ	wakɨn	ikun
mosquito	*naŋgun	naŋkun	yaŋkun	naŋgun	wawarɨn	nauk	nangɨt
ground	*andi	anti	anti	nɨŋkrump	andi	agin	andin
feces	*mɨndi	mɨlɨm	mɨnti	muɲjar	mɨndi	mɨndɨn	mɨndɨ
hear	*and-	andɨ	andu	andɨ	andɨ	dɨn	nda
hit	*di	tupul	kurar	dɨɨ	ti	di	nɨŋ
eat	*am(b)	am(b)	am(b)	am(b)	am(b)	mɨn	ma
go	*wa	wa	kuria	kal	wa	on	wa
come	*ya	ya	kurapia	ya	ya	ya	ya
sit	*sa	tay	sa	nda		sa	nda
big	*kupa	kɨpa	kupa	wupa	kupa	apo	kapu
cold	*sarV-	tarɨk	sarɨk	saruk	popant		sarapakin

For comparisons with the language isolate Tayap, see Tayap language#Classification.