Proto-Niger–Congo language

Reconstructed ancestor of the Niger–Congo language family From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Proto-Niger–Congo is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language of the proposed Niger–Congo language family.

Quick Facts Reconstruction of, Region ...
Proto-Niger–Congo
(hypothetical)
Reconstruction ofNiger–Congo languages
RegionAfrica
Eraca. 9,0008,000 BCE
Lower-order reconstructions
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Validity

Unlike Nilo-Saharan, the Niger–Congo language phylum is accepted by mainstream linguists and Africanists.[1] Atlantic–Congo (roughly, Niger–Congo but excluding the Mande, Kru, Siamou, Kordofanian, Dogon and Ijoid languages) is accepted by Glottolog 4.4.

Origin

Blench (2006,[2] 2016[3]) proposes that Proto-Niger–Congo originated about 11,00010,000 years before present in the western part of the "Green Sahara" of Africa (roughly the Sahel and southern Sahara), and that its dispersal can be correlated with the spread of the bow and arrow by migrating hunter-gatherers.

Phonology

Tones

Larry Hyman (2016) reconstructs two contrastive level tones for Proto-Niger–Congo, which are:[4][5]

  • *H (high tone)
  • *L (low tone)

Syllabic structure

Proto-Niger–Congo is traditionally assumed to have had a disyllabic root structure similar to that of Proto-Bantu, namely (C)V-CVCV[6] (Williamson 2000,[7] etc.). However, Roger Blench (2016) proposes a trisyllabic (CVCVCV) syllabic structure for Proto-Niger–Congo roots,[6] while Konstantin Pozdniakov (2016) suggests that the main prototypical structure of Proto-Niger–Congo roots is *CVC, along with disyllabic, trisyllabic, and other variations.[8]

Morphology

Summarize
Perspective

Noun classes

Noun classes can be reconstructed for Proto-Atlantic–Congo, and these are sometimes assumed to be Proto-Niger–Congo. Noun class prefixes in Proto-Atlantic–Congo include:[1]

  • noun class 1: prefix for human singular
  • noun class 2: prefix for human plural
  • noun class 6A: prefix for liquid and mass nouns ("uncountables")

Below are some Niger–Congo noun class markers (Good 2020:145,[9] from Schadeberg 1989:72[10]):

More information Branch, 1 (semantic category) ...
Branch11 (semantic category)344 (semantic category)566 (semantic categories)6a6a (semantic category)
Kordofanian*gu-humans*gu-*j-‘tree’*li-*ŋu-‘egg’*ŋ-liquids
Atlantic*gu-humans*gʊ-*Ci-‘trees’*de-*ga-‘head, name’*ma-liquids
Oti–Volta (Gur)*-ʊhumans*-bʊ*-Ci‘tree’*-ɖɪ*-a‘egg, head’*-maliquids
Ghana–Togo (Kwa)*o-humans*o-*i-‘firewood’*li-*a-‘egg, head, name’*N-liquids
Benue–Congo*u-humans*u-*(t)i-‘tree’*li-*a-‘egg, head, name’*ma-liquids
Bantu (noun)*mu-humans*mu-*mi-‘tree’*i̧-*ma-‘egg, name’*ma-liquids
Bantu (pronoun)*ju-*gu-*gi-*di-*ga-*ga-
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Verbal extensions

Below are some Proto-Niger/Atlantic–Congo, Proto-Bantu, and Proto-Atlantic verbal extensions (Good 2020:146,[9] from Hyman 2007:157[11]):

More information Type of suffix, applicative ...
Type of suffixProto-Niger/Atlantic–CongoProto-BantuProto-Atlantic
applicative *-de*-ɪd*-ed
causative *-ci, *-ti*-ic-i*-an
passive *-o*-ɪb-ʊ*-V[+back]
reciprocal *-na*-an*-ad
reversive *-to*-ʊd*-ɪt
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For example, in Swahili:

  • verb root: penda 'to love'
    • reciprocal: pendana 'to love each other'
    • applicative: pendea 'to love for'
    • causative: pendeza 'to please'

Pronouns

Güldemann's (2018) Proto-Niger–Congo pronoun reconstructions, for the first and second person pronouns (singular and plural), are given below.[1]

More information singular, plural ...
singularplural
1st person *mVfront*TVclose
2nd person *mVback*NVclose
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Babaev (2013) is a detailed survey of pronouns in Niger–Congo languages, along with detailed reconstructions.[12]

Numerals

Konstantin Pozdniakov (2018) has published a detailed reconstruction of Proto-Niger–Congo numerals, as well as comprehensive reconstructions for the lower-order branches of the Niger–Congo phylum. Pozdniakov (2018: 293)[13] and Güldemann (2018: 147) reconstruct the following numerals for Proto-Niger–Congo.[1]

More information Numeral, Proto-Niger–Congo (Pozdniakov 2018) ...
NumeralProto-Niger–Congo
(Pozdniakov 2018)
Proto-Niger–Congo
(Güldemann 2018)
1 *ku-(n)-di (> ni/-in), *do, *gbo/*kpo
2 *ba-di*Ri
3 *tat / *tath*ta(C)
4 *na(h)i*na(C)
5 *tan, *nu(n)*nU
6 5+1
7 5+2
8 *na(i)nai (< 4 reduplicated)
9 5+4
10 *pu / *fu
20 < ‘person’
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The numerals 6-9 are formed by combining lower numerals, while ‘20’ is derived from ‘person’.

Lexicon

Summarize
Perspective

There is currently no comprehensive, systematic reconstruction for Proto-Niger–Congo lexical roots. Nevertheless, quasi-reconstructions (preliminary, tentative reconstructions, which are marked using the number sign #) have been attempted by Roger Blench, who is currently compiling a Niger–Congo etymological dictionary. Some examples from Blench (2016):[6]

More information Gloss ...
Proto-Niger–CongoGloss
*keɗerito split, cut, break
*suŋgurito wash (transitive)
#tokorichew
*siŋgurirub, smear
*ɗumigbibury, dig, grave, plant
#tɪ́gbʊ́rɪ́head
#gbukurutortoise, turtle
#goŋgborochest
#kpagaraleg, foot
#ku(n)duŋoknee
#-bugbuluhole
#kVnVone
*tunurufive
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Hans Günther Mukarovsky [de]'s reconstruction of Proto-Western Nigritic (roughly equivalent to Proto-Atlantic–Congo[14]) was published in 2 volumes in 1976 and 1977.[15]

Plants

Blench (2009) lists various Niger–Congo quasi-reconstructions for plants with important economic uses (note that not all of them necessarily reconstruct to Proto-Niger–Congo). These roots are generally widespread areal forms (Wanderworts), with some of them also found in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages.[16] A few forms are also added from some of Blench's other works (2006, 2012, 2016).

More information Niger–Congo form, Common name ...
Niger–Congo formCommon nameScientific name(s)Notes
#-bal-palm spp.Raphia sudanica; Elaeis guineensis
#-kundi-dryzone palmPhoenix reclinata; Borassus aethiopum; Raphia sp.
#-bila-oil-palm (?)Elaeis guineensis
#-eli-oil-palmElaeis guineensis
#-ten-oil-palmElaeis guineensis
#(n)gbaŋ-fan-palmBorassus aethiopum
#lona[17]locust bean treeParkia biglobosa
#-(g)becola nutCola nitida, Cola acuminata
#gorocola nutCola nitida, Cola acuminata
#kumsilk-cotton treeCeiba pentandra
#kom-African mahoganyKhaya senegalensis
#ŋ-kpunushea tree; ‘oil, fat’Vitellaria paradoxa
#-parAfrican olive, bush-candleCanarium schweinfurthii
#kVN-sorghum, guinea-cornSorghum bicolor
#mar(d)apearl milletPennisetum glaucumalso widespread in West Chadic
#fundi[18]fonioDigitaria exilisin Mande, Atlantic, Gur, etc.
#ku; #ji[2]yamDioscorea spp.
#-tomaerial yamDioscorea bulbiferawidespread in Nigeria and western Cameroon[17]
#kokococoyam, taroColocasia esculenta
#zo(ko)cowpeaVigna unguiculatain Central Nigeria; Benue-Congo has *kón (Proto-Manenguba) and *-kʊ́ndè (Proto-Bantu)[2]
#-kpa[2]Bambara groundnutVigna subterraneaWest Benue-Congo
#-gunu[2]Bambara groundnutVigna subterraneaEast Benue-Congo
#-wiBambara groundnutVigna subterraneaPlateau languages
#-koracalabash, gourdLagenaria siceraria; Cucurbita spp.
#kom-enset, bananaMusa spp.
#kondeplantainMusa paradisiaca
#màaló (?)riceOryza glaberrimaProto-Manding reconstruction; widespread form across West Africa[2]
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Other plant names with widespread areal distributions in West Africa:

Animals

Below are some quasi-reconstructions of Niger–Congo areal forms for animal names given by Blench (2007[19]), with some reconstructions also based on Blench (2006).[2]

More information Niger–Congo form, Common name ...
Niger–Congo formCommon nameDistribution
#jatalionMande-Congo
#gunilionareal form
#-bunguhyenaVolta-Congo
#-bitihyenaProto-Benue-Kwa
#murumhyenaCentral Nigeria
#gbalielephantMande-Congo
#-nyielephantBenue-Kwa ?; also means 'tusk'
#-soluelephantVolta-Congo
#-budogProto-Niger–Congo
#kuru[2]crocodileNiger-Congo (Proto-Bantu has #-gandu)[2]
#budi[2]goatNiger-Congo (Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan have #k-r-)[2]
#-ga[2]village weaverBenue-Congo[2]
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See also

Bibliography

  • Güldemann, Tom (2011). "Proto-Bantu and Proto-Niger-Congo: Macro-areal Typology and Linguistic Reconstruction". Geographical Typology and Linguistic Areas. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Vol. 2. p. 109. doi:10.1075/tufs.2.09gul. ISBN 978-90-272-0769-2. ISSN 1877-6248.
  • Sim, Galina (2017). "Towards Proto-Niger–Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction, Paris, LLACAN, September 1–3, 2016". Journal of Language Relationship. 14 (3–4): 207–210. doi:10.31826/jlr-2017-143-408. ISSN 2219-4029.
  • Grollemund, Rebecca, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016. Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.

References

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