Ta'amreh

Nomadic Arab origins, lineage and sub-tribes

The Ta'amreh, also known as the Ta'amirah, is an Arab tribe originating from the wilderness stretching from the western Dead Sea shores to Bethlehem and Tekoah.^[1]^[2] The Ta'amrah were considered a Bedouin tribe, that is, nomadic Arabs.^[3]^[4] Although predominantly nomadic, living in tents, the tribe maintained one small village, Beit Ta'mir, which was primarily used for storing crops and was rarely inhabited.^[5]^[4]^[6] The Ta'amrah are also referred to as ‘Arab al-Ta‘āmira, with the term "Arab" in this context denoting their identity as a Bedouin tribe.^[7] This designation has been in use since their earliest recorded references in the 16th and 17th centuries (See Ta'amira mentions in Ottoman records for more details). Sedentarization of the tribe began in the 1920s and was largely completed by the 1970s.^[8] They were involved in the Qays–Yaman rivalry, and belonged to the Yemenite (Yaman) party.^[9]

The Ta'amreh tribe claim descent from the Bani Harith tribe of Wadi Musa. Moreover, The Ta'amreh consists of 3 sub-tribes: Bani Sa'ad, Bani Hajjaj, and Obayat-Kasaba.^[10]

Mentions in Ottoman records

In 1531, records from the Jerusalem Sharia Court mention an individual named 'Ali al-Ta'amari of ‘Arab al-Ta‘āmira. This record places the Ta'amreh in the vicinity of Bethlehem, marking their involvement in legal matters during the early Ottoman period.^[11]

In AD 1603/4 (A.H. 1012), a Bedouin named Sha‘ala of ‘Arab al-Ta‘āmira sold a beast of burden, originally stolen from Jindas near Lydda, to Sālim b. Ghunaym, resident of the village of Dayr al-Sinna in the Kidron Valley near Jerusalem.^[12]

In 1799 (A.H. 1214), local leaders of the Ta'amreh tribe along with other leaders of the Nahiyat al-Wadiyah, formed alliances to resist Napoleon's military campaign in Palestine. This coalition was organized to muster a group of 500 warriors dedicated to defending their territory. This mobilization is documented in the Sharia court registers of Jerusalem (register number 281, page 132), which reflect the administrative efforts of the Ottoman authorities to record local responses to external threats during this period. The record includes several representatives from local tribes and clans, among them Taʽamreh sheikhs such as ʿAbd Rabbo al-Taʽamari, ʿAli al-Ṣubḥ, Aḥmad al-Tanḥ, and Abū Dayyah.^[13]^[14]

These records highlight the Ta'amreh's active role in the social and judicial landscape of the region throughout the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

Conflicts, raids and battles

1605 raid on Beit Sahour

On May 13, 1605, the Ta'amreh tribe, in collaboration with the Bani Sakher and Bani Abbad tribes of Transjordan, conducted a raid on the village of Beit Sahour near Jerusalem. This attack was part of a series of Bedouin incursions that exploited the weakened Ottoman authority in the region. The Ta'amreh's involvement highlights their prominent role in the shifting power dynamics of the time.^[15]

1632 attack on the Balaqina Arabs in Abu Dis

In 1632, Ottoman records document an ambush in which the Ta'amreh tribe, along with the Arab tribes of Ka'abneh, Zuwaydiyin, Baraghishah-Hutaym, and the Arab villagers of Ain Silwan, At-Tur, and Issawiya, attacked a convoy of traders from the Balaqina Arabs (from Balqa in Jordan). The traders were returning to Abu Dis after selling their goods in Jerusalem. The attackers killed several members of Muhammad bin Mansi’s group from the Balaqina, killed thirteen camels and seized additional camels, highlighting the ongoing tribal conflicts and the Ta'amreh's significant involvement during this period.^[16]

1771 campaign against the Hutaym tribe

In 1771, the Taʽamrah tribe, with support from Bethlehem residents, seized a large area of land from the nearby Hutaym tribe. The Hutaym were forced to give up their territory to the Taʽamrah and make peace with them.^[17]

1799: resisting Napoleon's Palestine expedition

In 1799, leaders from the Ta'amreh tribe, together with other leaders from Nahiyat al-Wadiyah, formed alliances to resist Napoleon's campaign in Palestine. This coalition assembled a force of 500 warriors committed to defending their homeland under the Ottoman Sultan's leadership.^[13]^[14] The overall resistance was deemed to be successful, as it effectively hindered Napoleon's advance into the region and showcased the unity and strength of local tribes and groups.

1808: supporting Deir Dibwan

In 1808, the Hejaya tribe launched a raid on the village of Deir Diwan (Dibwan) part of Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate. The villagers, being allies of the Ta'amreh tribe and part of the Yemenite party, sought their support. The Ta'amreh swiftly came to their aid. After securing Deir Diwan from further harm, the Ta'amreh pursued the Hejaya to Wadi Derejeh near Jerusalem, where a fierce and closely contested battle took place. Following the clash, during which both sides sustained losses, the Ta'amreh strategically withdrew, having fulfilled their protective role.^[18]

1825 tax conflict and refuge in Bethlehem monasteries

In 1825, following the order to double tithes on the fellaheen, the Ta'amrah Bedouins allied themselves with the people of Bethlehem, the Laham family, and fugitives from nearby villages. They took to three monasteries in town belonging to the Greeks, Franks, and Armenians, decided to resist against the forces of Mustafa Pasha, but could not hold out against them and the Turks took revenge on the Arab villagers and the Christian monks alike.^[19]

1825 revolt against Mustafa Pasha

In May 1825, the Ta'amrah Bedouins revolted after Mustafa Pasha left Jerusalem for Damascus, and were joined by some Muslims of Bethlehem. The Ottoman soldiers guarding Bethlehem had mistreated the local population, insulting women and oppressing Christians. During the uprising, some Ottoman soldiers were killed and others expelled. The Mutesellim of Jerusalem appointed Musa Bey to lead a military response. The rebels fortified villages around the monastery of St. Elias but were forced to retreat after three days of artillery bombardment. Musa Bey then took a strategic position between Bethlehem and Beit Jala. Meanwhile, armed men in Jerusalem seized ammunition from the citadel, sparking a wider revolt.^[20]

1834 revolt in Palestine (Hebron)

The tribe participated in the 1834 Peasants' Revolt. The Ta'amrah Bedouins and the peasants of Sa'ir engaged in a fierce battle against an Ottoman Egyptian force that had been sent to pacify the Sa'ir peasants in Hebron. The battle resulted in the death of 25 Egyptian soldiers and the retreat of the remaining forces from Hebron.^[21]^[22]

1834 revolt in Palestine (Bethlehem)

On June 1, 1834, during the Revolt in Palestine, the Ta'amreh mustered 1,000 gunmen to defend themselves and the Christians of Bethlehem against the looting Khedival troops.^[23]

1834 revolt in Palestine (Jerusalem)

The Ta'amreh tribe also played a significant role in the Jerusalem front of the 1834 Peasants' Revolt. They actively participated in the capture of Jerusalem as part of the leading force against Ottoman control, standing as one of the last groups to resist the Turkish government. Their involvement highlighted their resilience and influence within the region during this tumultuous period.^[5]

1837 Ta'amreh-assisted crackdown on military deserters

In April 1837, following a large-scale desertion of over 300 soldiers from the Egyptian-Ottoman garrison in Jerusalem, the local authorities enlisted tribal forces to capture the fugitives. The Ta'amrah tribe, alongside state horsemen, played a key role in pursuing and apprehending the deserters. Contemporary accounts report that the Ta'amrah captured approximately 50 men, several of whom were later executed. This event illustrates the tribe’s continued military activity in the region, even after their earlier revolt against Egyptian rule (1834), and their evolving relationship with the governing authorities.^[24]

1843 raid on Bani Sakher

In 1843, the Ta'amreh tribe launched a significant campaign against the Bani Sakher tribe. Traveling from their homeland in Palestine into the territory of present-day Jordan, the Ta'amreh successfully overpowered the Bani Sakher. This confrontation resulted in the Ta'amreh looting 300 camels from the Bani Sakher.^[25]

1852 expedition against the Druze

In 1852, the Ta'amreh tribe participated in an expedition against the Druze. The tribe had been part of the troops of Nablus (4,000 Arab warriors) under the Ottoman sultan's leadership.^[26]

1853 Bisan raid

In 1853, the Ta'amreh, Jahalin, and Tiyaha tribes joined forces in a campaign against the Suqur tribe, based in the regions of Tiberias and Bisan. The allied tribes succeeded in overpowering the Suqur and looted their livestock, including 60 cows, 30 donkeys, several camels, as well as sheep and goats.^[27]

1853 intervention in Adwan tribe conflict

In September 1853, during a period of weakened Ottoman control, the Ta'amrah tribe formed an alliance with the Tiyaha Bedouins to support a regional conflict involving two rival leaders of the Adwan tribe, Nimmr and Abdulaziz. The Tiyaha moved through the Jerusalem district, gathering allies for the cause. A significant contingent approached the Ta'amrah, near Bethlehem, to join forces.^[28]

1853 Artas Valley invasion

In the summer of 1853, the Ta'amreh tribe, responding to drought and the failure of springs in their usual grazing areas between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, invaded the valley of Artas (Urtas) in search of water for their flocks and herds. A large group of Ta'amreh arrived with thousands of camels, sheep, and goats, utilizing the valley's resources to sustain their animals. Historically, the Ta'amreh had dominated the valley, only withdrawing due to agreements with John Meshullam, a British subject who had settled in Artas in partnership with local peasants.^[28]

1853 occupation of Bethlehem

The Ta'amrah, Tiyaha, and Malikiyyah tribes, along with the Abu Ghosh clan, formed a coalition that occupied Bethlehem for two weeks following a series of battles. The coalition consisted of at least 800 men, half of whom were mounted and armed with spears. This alliance was led by the Ta'amrah sheikhs and Abu Ghosh leaders.^[29]

1853 assault of Beit Jala

After the two-week occupation of Bethlehem, the coalition of the Ta'amrah, Tiyaha, and Malikiyyah tribes was ordered by the governing pasha to evacuate the city within three hours. However, instead of complying with the order, the coalition proceeded to assault Beit Jala for three days, which had already been occupied by their rivals, the Hassaniyah tribe [ar].^[29]

1856 defeat of Ottoman agha

In 1856, the Ta'amrah tribe attacked and defeated an Ottoman agha and his troops near Bethlehem. This battle occurred in the same region as a later conflict in 1858, reinforcing the Ta'amrah’s resistance to Ottoman authority.^[30]

1858 ambush at Rachel's Tomb

On September 23, 1858, Sheikh Safi ez-Zeer at-Ta'mari led the Ta'amrah in an ambush against an Ottoman force near Rachel's Tomb, just outside Bethlehem. The Ottoman force, led by Shakir Agha, the governor of Bethlehem and an officer of the Bashi-Bazouk with the rank of Yüz-Başı (captain), was escorting Ta'amrah prisoners to Jerusalem when over 100 Ta'amrah fighters attacked. During the battle, Shakir Agha was severely wounded; his arm was cut across by a sword, and his side was pierced by a spear thrown by Safi ez-Zeer. Shakir Agha was killed, the prisoners were freed, and the Ottoman forces suffered significant casualties.^[30]^[31]

1859 raid near Jerusalem

In 1859, the Ta'amreh tribe launched a raid near the walls of Jerusalem. During this attack, they plundered the area, looting 400 sheep.^[32]

1860 raid on al-Khader

In 1860, the Ta'amreh tribe mounted a successful raid on the village of Al-Khader, seizing control and plundering its crops in the process.^[33]

1888 retaliatory raid on Beit Fajjar

On 20 October 1888, a girl from the Ta’amrah tribe went out to gather wood near their encampment. Two young men from the nearby village of Beit Fajjar encountered her and attempted to assault her. She screamed loudly and ran back to the camp, shouting, "To arms! Your honour is soiled; in broad daylight your girls are violated!" The Ta’amrah men quickly armed themselves and launched a retaliatory attack on Beit Fajjar. They looted livestock, including herds, flocks, camels, and donkeys, and carried off all portable goods, while destroying others. During the hurried retreat of Beit Fajjar’s villagers, four men were severely wounded. The Ta’amrah lived off the seized herds for several weeks. Ottoman authorities intervened by sending soldiers who recovered part of the stolen property, arrested the two young men, and took them to Jerusalem for trial.^[34]

1938 battle near Al-Khader

During the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt in Palestine, a battle took place between Bethlehem and the village of Al-Khader. It was led by Ibrahim al-Halif, commander of a local rebel group from Bethlehem, with the participation of many fighters from the Ta'amrah tribe. Dozens of British soldiers were reportedly killed, alongside three rebels.^[35]

1939 battle of Bani Na'im Village

A battle was fought south of Jerusalem between Bethlehem and Hebron on January 6, 1939. The rebels included residents of the area and members of the Taʿamrah tribe. Among the twelve rebels killed were ʿAli Hassouni, cousin of Ibrahim al-Halif, and ʿIssa Abu Kaddum al-Taʿmari, commander of the Arab at-Taʿamrah faction. According to contemporary accounts, the rebels succeeded in killing and wounding approximately 75 British soldiers and according to a witness, Yassin, shot down a military aircraft.^[35]

Population and numbers

19th century

In 1834, the Ta'amreh could raise at least 1,000 gunmen.^[23] In 1847, the tribe had 300 tents.^[36] In 1864, the Ta'amreh had 1700 gunmen and 10 horsemen.^[10] In 1875, the Ta'amreh tribe numbered a total of 5,000 people, of whom 1,000 were men. They had around 400 tents at that time.^[37]

20th century

In 1922, the tribe numbered a total of 6000 people, of whom were 2800 men and 3200 women.^[38] In 1948, it consisted of 8000 people.^[39] Around 1979, the tribe numbered about 20,000 people.^[8]

Dead Sea Scrolls (1940s-50s)

Members of the Ta'amra tribe were involved in the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Qumran caves starting from 1946-47, and in 1951 in the Murabba'at caves in the Judaean Desert.^[40]

History