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Japanese conjugation
Overview of how Japanese verbs conjugate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Japanese verbs, like the verbs of many other languages, can be morphologically modified to change their meaning or grammatical function – a process known as conjugation. In Japanese, the beginning of a word (the stem) is preserved during conjugation, while the ending of the word is altered in some way to change the meaning (this is the inflectional suffix). Japanese verb conjugations are independent of person, number and gender (they do not depend on whether the subject is I, you, he, she, we, etc.); the conjugated forms can express meanings such as negation, present and past tense, volition, passive voice, causation, imperative and conditional mood, and ability. There are also special forms for conjunction with other verbs, and for combination with particles for additional meanings.
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Japanese verbs have agglutinating properties: some of the conjugated forms are themselves conjugable verbs (or i-adjectives), which can result in several suffixes being strung together in a single verb form to express a combination of meanings.
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Verb groups
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For Japanese verbs, the verb stem remains invariant among all conjugations. However, conjugation patterns vary according to a verb's category. For example, 知る (shiru) and 着る (kiru) belong to different verb categories (godan and ichidan, respectively) and therefore follow different conjugation patterns. As such, knowing a verb's category is essential for conjugating Japanese verbs.
Japanese verbs can be allocated into three categories:[1]
- Godan verbs (五段動詞, godan-dōshi; literally: "five‑row verbs"), also known as "pentagrade verbs"
- Ichidan verbs (一段動詞, ichidan-dōshi; literally: "one‑row verbs"), also known as "monograde verbs"
- Irregular verbs, most notably: する (suru, to do) and 来る (kuru, to come)
Verbs are conjugated from their "dictionary form", where the final kana is either removed or changed in some way.[1] From a technical standpoint, verbs usually require a specific conjugational stem (see § Verb bases, below) for any given inflection or suffix. With godan verbs, the conjugational stem can span all five columns of the gojūon kana table (hence, the classification as a pentagrade verb). Ichidan verbs are simpler to conjugate: the final kana, which is always る (ru), is simply removed or replaced with the appropriate inflectional suffix. This means ichidan verb stems, in themselves, are valid conjugational stems which always end with the same kana (hence, the classification as a monograde verb).
This distinction can be observed by comparing conjugations of the two verb types, within the context of the gojūon table.[2]
- * These forms are given here in hiragana for illustrative purposes; they would normally be written with kanji as 見ない, 見ます etc.
As can be seen above, the godan verb yomu (読む, to read) has a static verb stem, yo- (読〜), and a dynamic conjugational stem which changes depending on the purpose: yoma- (読ま〜; row 1), yomi- (読み〜; row 2), yomu (読む; row 3), yome- (読め〜; row 4) and yomo- (読も〜; row 5). Unlike godan verb stems, ichidan verb stems are also functional conjugational stems, with the final kana of the stem remaining static in all conjugations.
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Verb bases
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Conjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible conjugational stems or bases (活用形, katsuyōkei; literally "conjugation forms") .[3] However, as a result of the language evolving,[4][5] historical sound shifts,[6][7] and the post‑WWII spelling reforms,[8] three additional sub‑bases have emerged for verbs (seen in the table below as the Potential, Tentative, and Euphonic bases). Meanwhile, verbs no longer differentiate between the terminal form (終止形, shūshikei; used to terminate a predicate) and the attributive form (連体形, rentaikei; used to modify a noun or noun phrase) bases (these bases are only distinguished for na‑adjectives in the modern language, see Japanese adjectives).[9][10] Verb bases function as the necessary stem forms to which inflectional suffixes attach.
Verbs are named and listed in dictionaries according to their "dictionary form" (辞書形, jishokei). This is also called the "plain form" (since this is the plain, non‑polite, non‑past conjugation), and it is the same as the modern "terminal form" (終止形, shūshikei), and the "attributive form" (連体形, rentaikei).[2] The verb group (godan, ichidan, or irregular) determines how to derive any given conjugation base for the verb. With godan verbs, the base is derived by shifting the final kana along the respective vowel row of the gojūon kana table. With ichidan verbs, the base is derived by removing or replacing the final る (ru) kana.[2]
The table below illustrates the various verb bases across the verb groups, with the patterns starting from the dictionary form.[11]
Of the nine verb bases, the shūshikei/rentaikei, meireikei, and ren'yōkei bases can be considered fully conjugated forms without needing to append inflectional suffixes. In particular, the shūshikei/rentaikei and meireikei bases do not conjugate with any inflectional suffixes. By contrast, a verb cannot be considered fully conjugated in its kateikei, mizenkei, ishikei, kanōkei, or onbinkei base alone; a compatible inflectional suffix is required for that verb construction to be grammatical.[31]
Certain inflectional suffixes, in themselves, take on the form of verbs or i‑adjectives. These suffixes can then be further conjugated by adopting one of the verb bases, followed by the attachment of the appropriate suffix. The agglutinative nature of Japanese verb conjugation can thus make the final form of a given verb conjugation quite long. For example, the word 食べさせられたくなかった (tabesaseraretakunakatta) is broken down into its component morphemes below:
Derivative verb bases
There are three modern verb base forms that are considered to be derived from older forms. These are the potential, volitional, and euphonic sub‑bases, as shown in the Verb base formation table above.
As with all languages, the Japanese language has evolved to fulfil the contemporary needs of communication. The potential form of verbs is one such example. In Old Japanese and Early Middle Japanese, potential was expressed with the verb ending ゆ (yu), which was also used to express the passive voice ("to be done") and the spontaneous voice ("something happens on its own"). This evolved into the modern passive ending （ら）れる (-(ra)reru), which can similarly express potential and spontaneous senses. As usage patterns changed over time, different kinds of potential constructions emerged, such as the grammatical pattern of the rentaikei base + -koto ga dekiru (〜ことができる), and also via the kanōkei base.[4] The historical development of the kanōkei base is disputed, however the consensus is that it stemmed from a shift wherein transitive verbs developed an intransitive sense similar to the spontaneous, passive, and potential, and these intransitive forms conjugated in the 下二段活用 (shimo nidan katsuyō, lower bigrade conjugation pattern) of the Classical Japanese of the time.[5] The lower bigrade conjugation pattern evolved into the modern ichidan pattern in modern Japanese, and these stems for godan verbs have the same form as the hypothetical stems in the table above.
The mizenkei base that ends with -a was also used to express the volitional mood for yodan verbs (四段動詞, yodan-dōshi; "Class‑4 verbs") in Old Japanese and Middle Japanese, in combination with volitional suffix む (-mu). Sound changes caused the resulting -amu ending to change: /-amu/ → /-ãu/ → /-au/ (like English "ow") → /-ɔː/ (like English "aw") → /-oː/. The post‑WWII spelling reforms updated spellings to reflect this and other sound changes, resulting in the addition of the ishikei or volitional base, ending with -o, for the volitional mood of yodan verbs. This also resulted in a reclassification of "yodan verbs" to "godan verbs" (五段動詞, godan-dōshi; "Class‑5 verbs").[8][26]
The ren'yōkei base also underwent various euphonic changes specific to the perfective and conjunctive (te) forms for certain verb stems,[32][6][7] giving rise to the onbinkei or euphonic base.[28] In the onbinkei base, the inflectional suffixes for godan verbs vary according to the last kana of the verb's ren'yōkei base.[2]
The bases of suru
Unlike most verbs, suru and its derived compounds exhibit strong irregularity in their verb bases. In some cases, some variants are preferred over the others, and such preferences vary among speakers. Roughly speaking, there are three major groups that behave similarly:[33]
- Group A: Suru itself and compounds of it and free nouns (which are usually, but not always, spelt with two more kanji if Sino-Japanese): jikkō suru (実行する; 'practise'), toku suru (得する; 'gain'), son suru (損する; 'lose'), bikkuri suru (吃驚する; 'be startled'), janpu suru (ジャンプする; 'jump'), etc.
- Group B: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphemes that behave more like godan verbs. These often have full-fledged, interchangeable godan derivatives: aisu(ru) (愛す(る); 'love'), zokusu(ru) (属す(る); 'belong'), tassu(ru) (達す(る); 'reach'), etc.
- Such a form as aisenu (愛せぬ) is supposed to be the classical Japanese equivalent to aisanai (愛さない). Compare the following translations of 1 John 3:14 ("[…] Anyone who does not love remains in death."[34]):
- However, aisenu ("not love") as the negative of aisu(ru) ("love") would likely be confused with aisenu ("cannot love") as the negative of the potential aiseru ("can love") in modern Japanese. It is clear that aisenu is not the same as aisanu where they both occur in close proximity: Wa ga ko o aisanu mono wa arimasen. Wa ga ko sae aisenu mono ga, dō shite goshukun o aisemashō. (わが子を愛さぬ者はありません。わが子さえ愛せぬ者が、どうしてご主君を愛せましょう。; transl. No man does not love his own son. If he is not capable of loving even his own son, in what way could he ever love his lord?).[37]
- There is great variety among Group-B verbs as to whether to choose between the godan-negative -san(u)/-zu and the classical-negative -sen(u)/-zu, and there are indeed cases where only contexts can clarify whether -sen(u)/-zu are truly classical-negative, or actually godan-negative-potential. In general, it seems that if the Sino-Japanese stem contains a moraic obstruent as in kussuru (屈する; くっする, /kɯQsɯɾɯ/), a moraic nasal as in hansuru (反する; はんする, /haNsuru/), or lengthening mora as in kyōsuru (供する; きょうする, /kjoRsɯɾɯ/), the godan options are less preferable with all auxiliaries (including the negative -n(u)/-zu), though not impossible. Thus, such forms as kussenu/kussezu (屈せぬ・屈せず; 'not bend') are more likely to be classical-negative, while such forms as aisenu/aisezu (愛せぬ・愛せず; 'cannot love') are more likely to be godan-negative-potential; and while both kussanu/kussazu (屈さぬ・屈さず; 'not bend') and aisanu/aisazu (愛さぬ・愛さず; 'not love') are unambiguously godan-negative, the former are not as likely as the latter.[33]
- Group C: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphmes that behave more like upper (i-stemmed) ichidan verbs. These often have full-fledged, interchangeable upper ichidan derivatives: ronzuru → ronjiru (論ずる→論じる; 'discuss'), ōzuru → ōjiru (応ずる→応じる; 'respond'), omonzuru → omonjiru (重んずる→重んじる; 'appreciate'), sassuru → sasshiru (察する→察しる; 'surmise'), etc.
- Group D: Compounds with bound Sino-Japanese morphemes that behave more like lower (e-stemmed) ichidan verbs. These may have full-fledged, interchangeable lower ichidan derivatives: shinzuru → shinzeru (進ずる→進ぜる; 'provide') and misuru → miseru (魅する→魅せる; 'enchant').
Across the following forms of suru within standard Japanese, an eastern dialect, while there is a dominance of the eastern vowel i as in shinai,[38] shiyō[39] and shiro,[40] the once prestigious western vowel e, as in sen(u) and seyo, still has currency especially in formal or literary Japanese. Such variants as senai and sanai (both of shinai); shin(u) (of sen(u)); shō (← seu), seyō and sō (all of shiyō); sero (of shiro); and shiyo, sē and sei (all of seyo), remain dialectal or obsolete.[41][42][43]
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Copula: da, de aru and desu
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The copula or "to be" verb in Japanese is a special case. This comes in two basic forms, だ (da) in the plain form and です (desu) in the polite form. These are generally used to predicate sentences, equate one thing with another (i.e. "A is B."), or express a self‑directed thought (e.g. a sudden emotion or realization).[45]
Copula: Conjugation table
The Japanese copula is not a standard 'verb' and conjugations are limited to a smaller subset of functions. Furthermore, this conjugates according to its own specific patterns.[10]
The copulae of Japanese demonstrate suppletion, in that they combined different forms from different words into one word. The original copulae were all based on the verb ari (あり; 'to exist'), which evolved into the modern aru (ある). It needed to be preceded by one of the three particles, ni, ni te → de[124][125] and to, which yielded three variants, ni ari/ni aru → nari/naru,[126] de ari/de aru → da[127] and to ari/to aru → tari/taru, the last of which fell out of use, but did phonetically coincide with te ari/te aru → tari/taru,[128] which in turn evolved into the modern past auxiliary ta.[129] It also combined with adjectival roots to expand their conjugation, for example akaku arō → akakarō (赤かろう), akaku atta → akakatta (赤かった), etc.
In modern Japanese, the copulae da and de aru take various forms by suppletion:
- The original conclusive de ari, was replaced by the attributive de aru, which evolved into the informal conclusive da, and the formal conclusive de aru. In terms of formality and politeness:
- Da is informal and impolite. Depending on specifically what precedes it, da can be perceived as abrupt or too masculine, and therefore is customarily omitted in some cases.[130]
- De aru is formal and nonpolite (with no inherent assumption of politeness).
- Desu is nonformal (with no inherent assumption of formality) and polite.
- De arimasu is formal and polite.
- Gozaru (御座る; contracted from goza aru) is the honorific version of aru, and goza(r)imasu is the honorific version of arimasu. Gozaru has most of the forms that aru does ((de (wa)) gozaru, (de (wa)) gozaranu, (de (wa)) gozareba, etc), although it additionally undergoes a minor sound change in the polite conclusive/attributive gozarimasu → gozaimasu and the imperative gozare → gozai. Gozaimasu is authentically used in modern Japanese, while gozaru, gozarimasu(ru) and gozaimasuru are used for effect, such as in theatrical or humorous lines.[131]
- The current attributive form of de (wa) aru is still de (wa) aru. Da additionally takes naru → na (of said nari) as its attributive form[132] only in adjectival verbs,[133] as in kirei na hana (綺麗な花; 'pretty flower', lit. 'a flower, which is pretty'), and after the auxiliaries sō (そう), yō (よう) and mitai (みたい), as in rikō sō na kao (利口そうな顔; 'smart-looking face', lit. 'a face, which appears smart') and kanojo no yō na hito (彼女のような人; 'someone like her', lit. 'a person, who is like her'); while the particle no is used after nouns, as in tomodachi no Yūko (友達の裕子; 'my friend Yūko', lit. 'Yūko, who is my friend') or bijin no onēsan (美人のお姉さん; 'my beautiful sister', lit. 'my sister, who is a beauty'). However, since no also expresses possession, this may cause ambiguity, as in isha no ojisan (医者のおじさん; lit. 'my uncle, who is a doctor; my doctor's uncle');[134] moreover, some nouns can function as either "adjectival verbs" or "nouns", and take either na or no, such as iroiro na mono/iroiro no mono (色々な物・色々の物; 'various things'). The old naru (of said nari) and taru (of said to ari/to aru → tari/taru) can still be used for literary effect, as in zetsudai naru gokitai (絶大なるご期待; 'the utmost anticipation'), Hokkaidō naru chihō (北海道なる地方; 'Hokkaido region'), isha taru hito (医者たる人; 'a person, who is known as a doctor'), kyōshi taru mono (教師たるもの; 'those who call themselves teachers'), or in such idiom as sei naru (聖なる; 'holy') or dōdō taru (堂々たる; 'splendid').[133] Incidentally, an ancient possessive na was fossilized in words like manako (眼; 'eyeball', lit. 'eye's child'), minato (港; 'harbor', lit. 'water's door'), tanagokoro (掌; 'palm', lit. 'hand's heart'), etc.[135] There is also a niche distinction between Kōbe no hito (神戸の人; 'person from Kobe', lit. 'Kobe's person') and Kōbe na hito (神戸な人; 'person seeming like they could be from Kobe', lit. 'Kobe-ish person').[136] Na is also used before the nominalizer no, as in sobo wa hyakusai na no da (祖母は100歳なのだ; lit. 'it's a fact that my grandma is 100 years old').
- The three conjunctive forms (two of which are particles) combine with different words,[137][138][139] each with its own parallel:
- ni + naru → ni naru ("become"), parallel with akaku + naru → akaku naru ("become red")
- de + aru → de aru ("be"), parallel with akaku + aru → akaku aru ("be red") and nomi + suru → nomi suru ("drink")
- de + nai → de nai ("not be"), parallel with akaku + nai → akaku nai ("not be red") and nomi + shinai → nomi shinai ("not drink")
- de ari + -masu → de arimasu ("be"),[p] parallel with nomi + -masu → nomimasu ("drink")
- The above formations allow "splitting",[140] or adding particles like wa or mo between the conjunctive forms and the following verbs, which would be impossible with da ("be"), akai ("be red") and nomu ("drink") alone:
- da ("be"), parallel with akai ("be red") and nomu ("drink")
- ni mo naru ("become …, too"), parallel with akaku mo naru ("become red, too")
- de wa aru ("be …, indeed"), parallel with akaku wa aru ("be red, indeed") and nomi wa suru ("drink, indeed")
- de wa nai ("not be …, indeed"), parallel with akaku wa nai ("not be red, indeed") and nomi wa shinai ("not drink, indeed")
- The particles wa and mo are often added, especially to the negatives, although not required in principle.[124][141] Wa puts focus on what goes after it, while mo puts focus what goes before it.[142] In the following sentences, the focused information is underlined for the Japanese originals and the literal English translations; for the non-literal English translations, all-caps type emulates how an English speaker would emphasize the focused information.
- Kono hen ga shizuka da. (この辺が静かだ。; lit. 'This area[, not any other area,] is quiet.', transl. THIS area is quiet.)
- Kono hen mo shizuka da. (この辺も静かだ。; lit. 'This area, too, [along with at least another area,] is quiet.', transl. THIS area's also quiet.)
- Kono hen wa shizuka da. (この辺は静かだ。; lit. 'This area? It's quiet.', transl. This area's QUIET.)
- Kono hen wa shizuka de wa aru ga, fuben da. (この辺は静かではあるが、不便だ。; lit. 'This area? Being quiet? It is indeed, but it's inconvenient.', transl. This area IS quiet, but it's inconvenient)
- While de nai/arimasen are sometimes used in formal contexts, in ordinary speech ja nai/ja arimasen are used instead. In this case, even though ja is etymologically a colloquially reduced version of de wa,[10] ja nai/arimasen are, functionally, colloquial versions of either de nai/arimasen, which focus on what comes before them, or de wa nai/arimasen which focus on nai/arimasen. Some speakers distinguish the short ja (じゃ) for de and the long jā (じゃあ) for de wa.[143]
- Marukusu to Renin no shinja de nai desu ka /~ ja arimasen ka (マルクスとレニンの信者でないですか・～じゃありませんか; lit. 'Are they not believers in Marx and Lenin?', transl. Aren't they BELIEVERS in Marx and Lenin?)
- Marukusu to Renin no shinja de wa nai desu ka /~ ja(a) arimasen ka (マルクスとレニンの信者ではないですか・～じゃ(あ)ありませんか; lit. 'Believers in Marx and Lenin? Is that not what they are?', transl. Are they NOT believers in Marx and Lenin?)
- While de (wa) arimasen and de (wa) arimasen deshita are often recommended, de (wa) nai desu and de (wa) nakatta desu are acceptable colloquial alternatives.[144]
- De (wa) areba is the regular way of forming conditionals (仮定形, kateikei) in modern Japanese. Naraba (of said nari) is kept as the conditional of da, and along with taraba (of said te ari/te aru → tari/taru → ta), retains the old way of forming conditionals. See #Conditional: Conjugation table or more.
- Desu, a copula of uncertain origin, takes its missing forms from de (wa) aru and de (wa) arimasu, the latter of which is conceivably the ancestor of desu.[145]
- Although なら(ば) (nara(ba)), だろう (darō) and でしょう (deshō) were originally conjugations of だ (da) and です (desu), they are now also used as particles or auxiliaries and can attach directly to other verbs' conclusive/attributive forms, as in kaku nara(ba) (書くなら(ば); 'if one writes'), kaku darō/deshō (書くだろう・でしょう; 'one will probably write'). Unlike da which is inherently blunt and only suitable for familiar speech, nara(ba) and darō are suitable for writing.[146]. Desu, deshita and deshō can extend the polite conjugation of the negative auxiliaries -n(u) and -nai, as well as adjectives:[147]
- Arimasen(u)/gozaimasen(u) / nai desu ("be not")
- Arimasen/gozaimasen deshō / nai deshō ("be probably not")
- Arimasen/gozaimasen deshita / nakatta desu ("were not")
- Arimasen/gozaimasen deshita deshō / nakatta deshō ("were probably not")
- Akai desu ("be red")
- Akai deshō ("be probably red")
- Akakatta desu ("were red")
- Akakatta deshō ("were probably red")
- As shown above, desu does not have its own negative form, and instead borrows de (wa) arimasen from de (wa) arimasu. However, the auxiliary -n in de (wa) arimasen in turn does not have its own past (the historical -nanda is now dialectal) and conjectural form, therefore deshita and deshō have to be added. The past conjectural -tarō is infrequent, thus instead of deshitarō, deshita deshō is preferred.[148]
Copula: Grammatical compatibility
The だ negative forms, じゃない (ja nai) and ではない (de wa nai), are compatible with all negative valence conjugations (such as the negative past tense or the negative -te form).[10] However, the です negative forms, じゃありません (ja arimasen) and ではありません (de wa arimasen), are conjugated into the past tense by appending でした (deshita) as a suffix (and are therefore incompatible with subsequent 〜ない (-nai) conjugations).[10] Furthermore, the perfective forms, だった (datta) and でした (deshita), are compatible with the ~tara conditional.[149]
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Imperfective
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Perspective
The imperfective form (also known as the "non‑past", "plain form", "short form", "dictionary form" and the "attributive form") is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma. It is used to express actions that are assumed to continue into the future, habits or future intentions.[150]
The imperfective form cannot be used to make a progressive continuous statement, such as in the English sentence "I am shopping". To do so, the verb must first be conjugated into its te form and attached to the いる (iru) auxiliary verb .
Imperfective: Conjugation table
The imperfective form uses the conclusive/attributive, and is thus equivalent to the dictionary form.
Note that certain -suru or -zuru verbs and their godan and ichidan equivalents are interchangeable (or at least sensitive to specifically what follows them) and even used in the same text, although it has been claimed that, at least for the conclusive/attributive form, the more classical/literary (文語, bungo)/western -zuru variants are more "formal" and "basically a written form",[151] compared to the more modern/colloquial (口語, kōgo)/eastern -jiru variants.[152] The -su variants are highly inconsistent across verbs, and even for highly "godan-ized" verbs like aisuru (愛する), whose other forms are predominantly godan, the conclusive/attributive aisuru and conditional aisureba in particular are still preferred to the fully godan variants aisu and aiseba.[33] In some cases it is not clear whether aisu is godan or actually pseudo-classical, for example in aisu beki (愛すべき) where all -suru verbs can optionally lose the ru. In classical or pseudo-classical literature, aisu is more likely to be conclusive and aisuru is more likely to be attributive or nominalized.
The sound sequence /Vi/, with /V/ being a vowel, is often colloquially and masculinely fused into a long vowel. Since all adjectival conclusive/attributive forms have this sound sequence, they are liable to such fusion. Most adjectives of this kind remain distinctly masculine, and their phonetic spellings are found in written dialog for masculine characters in fiction, such as nai → nē (ねえ・ねー; 'nonexistent'), urusai → urusē → ussē (うるせえ・うるせー・うっせえ・うっせー; 'noisy; pesky'), hayai → ha(y)ē (はええ・はえー; 'quick'), sugoi → sugē (すげえ・すげー; 'superb'), tsuyoi → tsu(y)ē (つええ・つえー; 'strong'), warui → warī (わりい・わりー; 'bad'), yasui → yashī (やしい・やしー; 'easy; cheap'), mazui → majī (まじい・まじー; 'unpalatable'), atsui → achī (あちい・あちー; 'thick; hot'), kayui → kaī (かいい・かいー; 'itchy'), etc. Non-masculine examples include yoi → (y)ē → ī (いい・いー),[153] and kawayui → kawaī (かわいい・かわいー; 'adorable'). See Japanese phonology § Vowel fusion for further citations.
Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility
The imperfective form can be used to issue prohibitive commands by attaching 〜な (-na).[180] For example, 入るな！ (hairu na!, "Do not enter!"). Additionally, the imperfective form is compatible with the nominalizers 〜の (-no) and 〜こと (-koto), which repurpose the verb as a noun. For example, カラオケで歌うのは楽しい！ (karaoke de utau no wa tanoshii!, Singing at karaoke is fun!).
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Negative
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Perspective
The negative form is broadly equivalent to the English word "not".[150]
Negative: Conjugation table
The negative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the -nai (ない) suffix. This auxiliary arose in eastern dialects during Late Middle Japanese and displaced the western -n (see below) in standard Japanese, and while having been linked to another negative auxilary, -nau → -nō (なふ), it appears to be a grammaticalized version of the adjective nai (無い; 'be nonexistent').[181] It is possible to have a double negative, as in shizuka ja naku nai n da ga (静かじゃなくないんだが; transl. it's not not (=it is) quiet all right, but), hanashitaku naku nai kedo (話したくなくないけど; transl. I don't not want (=I do want) to talk, but), ippan no dokusha ni totte tashō wakarinikui ten mo naku wa nai (一般の読者に取って多少分かりにくい点もなくはない; transl. there are not not (=there are) points that, for the general reader, are hard to understand), etc.[182]
-N (tsukuran (作らん; 'not make')) is a negative auxiliary that was reduced from the earlier western[183][184][185][186][187][188] and classical -nu (tsukuranu (作らぬ)), but was largely displaced by the eastern -nai (tsukuranai (作らない)) in standard Japanese.[189][190] However, only -n(u), not -nai, is compatible with the politeness auxiliary -masu, which yields -masen,[42]. Edo Japanese used to have the easternized -mashinai, which was recorded in its spoken form with vowel fusion as -mashinē,[191] but the western -masen ultimately prevailed. -N(u) is still found in modern Japanese and thought of as "shortened" from -nai, although as the fact that shin(u) (しん・しぬ) is strictly dialectal compared to the standard sen(u) (せん・せぬ) shows,[41] it is not really a "short" form. Some modern examples include tokoro ga, henji o yokosan no desu (ところが、返事を寄越さんのです; 'but they sent me no reply'), Boku wa benkai sen desu. Tada iwan koto o kakaretara komaru. (僕は弁解せんです。ただ言わん事を書かれたら困る; 'I don't make excuses. It's just that it is embarrassing to have things written as if I had said them when I haven't.'), sen de kudasai (せんでください; 'don't do it').[41] -N(u)'s conjunctive form, -zu, is still used in writing. Ja nai (no) ka (じゃない(の)か; 'isn't it?') is indeed shortened to jan (じゃん) especially by young people.[192] -Nai and -nu can be used in the same sentence where -nai is treated as conclusive and -nu as attributive: Gaikōken o motanu Okinawa wa Amerika to kōshō suru koto mo dekinai (外交権を持たぬ沖縄はアメリカと交渉することもできない; 'Okinawa, which does not have diplomatic power, cannot negotiate with America').[193]
-N also happens to be a reduced form of -mu (tsukuramu (作らむ; 'let's make; probably make')), whose other reduced form, -u, is still used to make volitional forms (tsukurō (作ろう)).[189] -Nu also happens to be an archaic perfective auxiliary (equivalent to -ta/-da in modern Japanese), with a different conjugation from the negative -nu.[194]
Negative: Grammatical compatibility
The negative form is compatible with the ～で (-de) particle for additional functions, such as requesting someone to cease/desist or joining a subordinate clause. It is also compatible with i‑adjective inflections, since the ～ない (-nai) suffix ends with ～い (-i). なくて (-nakute) is also used.
Negative continuous
The negative continuous form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the 〜ず (zu) suffix; equivalent to replacing 〜ない (-nai) with 〜ず (-zu) in the table above. An exception is する (suru, to do), which instead conjugates as せず (sezu, not doing). In this form, the negative continuous cannot terminate a sentence. The verb has the "negative continuous tense" unless followed by the に (ni) particle, where its meaning changes to "without". The -zuni form (〜ずに, without doing) is semantically interchangeable with -naide (〜ないで, without doing). However, -zuni is only used in written Japanese or formal speech.[261][262]
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Perfective
Summarize
Perspective
The perfective form (過去形・完了形, kakokei / kanryōkei; also known as the "ta form", "past tense" and the "perfect tense") is equivalent to the English "past tense".[263]
Perfective: Conjugation table
The perfective form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the た・だ (ta/da) suffix, which was historically a combination of te (as in the te forms below) and the verb aru ("exist").[264][265] This conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the euphony (音便, onbin) of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes)
The past form of the eastern negative auxiliary -nai, which is grammatically adjectival, is -nakatta (← -naku + atta). The western -n, on the other hand, has multiple variants: -nanda, -zatta (← -zu + atta), -henkatta, -n jatta, -n datta[266][aa] (both from -n + de atta), -n yatta, etc. -Nkatta is found in both the east and the west.[267]
While -n is largely western, it is still used in the polite negative -masen in eastern dialects as well, and it also has multiple variants for past negative forms with:[268]
- Politeness marked by -mase-, and past negativity by plain auxiliaries: -masenanda, -masenkatta, -mahenkatta
- Politeness marked by -mase-, negativity by -n, and pastness by variants of the copula de atta: -masen jatta/datta/yatta, -mahen jatta/datta/yatta
- Politeness marked by both -mase- and deshi-, negativity by -n, and pastness by -ta: -masen deshita, -mahen deshita
Alternatively, politeness can be marked only with desu instead of -mase-, with:
- Past negativity marked by plain auxiliaries, and politeness by desu: -nakatta desu, -nkatta desu, -henkatta desu
- Negativity marked by -n, pastness by variants of the copula de atta, politeness by desu: -n jatta/datta/yatta desu
- Negativity marked by -n, and past politeness by the copula deshita: -n deshita, -hen deshita
Of the above, only -masen deshita and -nakatta desu are accepted in Tokyo Japanese.
The now western -nanda was used in the older Edo Japanese (the precursor of the modern Tokyo Japanese),[269] as in torananda (取らなんだ; 'did not take', equivalent to toranakatta), mairimasenanda (参りませなんだ; 'did not visit', equivalent to mairimasen deshita), shiremashinanda (知れましなんだ; 'could not know; did not become known', equivalent to shiremasen deshita),[192] de arimasenanda (でありませなんだ; 'were not', equivalent to de arimasen deshita), etc. In Tokyo Japanese, -nanda was displaced by -nakatta, while -masenanda was displaced by -masenkatta,[270] -masen datta,[271] and ultimately -masen deshita.[272][273][274][195] -Nanda and -masenanda can still be used in literature to convey dialectal speech (including speech by non-Japanese characters) or faux-archaic speech (including interpretative or anachronistic speech).
Perfective: Grammatical compatibility
The perfective form is compatible with:
- The "tari form" (or "tari‑tari form", also known as the "tari‑tari‑suru form"), to describe a non‑exhaustive list of actions (similar to AやB describes a non‑exhaustive lists of objects). It uses り (ri) as the subordinate conjunction.[308][309]
- The "tara form" (or "past conditional"), to describe events that will happen as a result of completing something. It uses ら (ra) as the subordinate conjunction.[310][149]
- It can be used to mean "if" or "when";
- It can also be used to reveal an unexpected outcome that happened in the past.
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te form
Summarize
Perspective
The te form (て形, tekei) or the gerund[311] allows verbs to function like conjunctions. Similar to the word "and" in English, the te form connects clauses to make longer sentences. Conversely, as a sentence terminal, it functions as a casual instruction (like a gentle imperative command). Finally, the te form attaches to a myriad of auxiliary verbs for various purposes.[312][313]
There are limitations where the te form cannot be used to conjugate between pairs of verbs (such as when two verbs are unrelated) and the conjunctive form is used instead.[314]
te form: Conjugation table
The te form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the て・で (te/de) suffix. Just like the perfective form, this conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the euphony (音便, onbin) of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes) Te was the conjunctive form of the ancient auxiliary tu.[315][316][317] It was used to create the perfective auxiliary by fusing with the verb aru: te + aru → ta. This was also how the particle tari was formed.[264][265] It also fused with the copular particle ni: ni + te → de.[318]
Te can be followed by different subsidiary verbs (補助動詞, hojo dōshi) and subsidiary adjectives (補助形容詞, hojo keiyōshi), such as iru/oru (居る・いる・おる), aru (有る・ある), kureru (呉れる・くれる), kudasaru (下さる・くださる), miru (見る・みる), oku (置く・おく), shimau (仕舞う・終う・しまう), nai (無い・ない), ii/yoi (良い・いい・よい), hoshii (欲しい・ほしい), etc, to add more meaning or nuance. The current convention is to spell these words in kana when they function as subsidiaries, although they are already frequently spelt in kana anyway due to their high frequency. Note that despite their shared etymology, -ta and -tari no longer mean the same thing as -te aru.
The auxiliary -nai de ("not and") is more common than -nakute after verbs. Only -nai de can occur before a subsidiary:[315]
- Asagohan o tabenai de gakkō ni kuru ko ga iru (朝ご飯を食べないで学校に来る子がいる; transl. There are children who come to school without eating breakfast)
- Watashi ga ikanai de wa sumanai darō (私が行かないでは済まないだろう; transl. There'll be no end to this unless I go)
- Himitsu o hanasanai de kureta (秘密を話さないでくれた; transl. He didn't tell us the secret in our favor)
- Warawasenai de (kudasai) (笑わせないで(ください); transl. Stop making me laugh)
- Seijika o tokubetsu atsukai ni shinai de hoshii (政治家を特別扱いにしないでほしい; transl. I don't want politicians to be given special treatment)[175]
-Nakute can be used after verbs, although not before subsidiaries:[315]
- Kanojo wa kare to seikaku ga awanakute rikon shita (彼女は彼と性格が合わなくて離婚した; transl. She didn't get along with him, and they got divorced)
- Sōhō no iibun o kikanakute wa handan o kudasenai (双方の言い分を聞かなくては判断を下せない; transl. I cannot judge without hearing from both sides)[175]
The negative equivalent of atte (あって) is the adjective nakute[315] or sometimes nai de:
- Watashi wa ashi ni jishin ga nakute, minisukāto ga hakenai (私は足に自信がなくて、ミニスカートが履けない; transl. I'm not confident in my legs so I can't wear a miniskirt)
- Kaze ga nakute/nai de fune ga susumanaku natta (風がなくて・ないで船が進まなくなった; transl. The ship wouldn't move without wind; the ship was becalmed)
- Tan naru ippanron de wa nakute, kimi jishin no iken o kikitai (単なる一般論ではなくて、君自身の意見を聞きたい; transl. I want to hear your own opinion, not the commonly held view)[175]
-Kute wa can be colloquially reduced to -kutya(a) (with a palatalized ty sound rather than a fully affricated ch sound):[319]
- Yaksuoku o mamotte kurenakutya(a) komaru yo (約束を守ってくれなくちゃ(あ)困るよ; transl. We'd be aggrieved if you weren't to keep your promise)
- Aite ga inakutya(a) kenka wa dekinai (相手がいなくちゃ(あ)喧嘩はできない; transl. You can't squabble without someone to squabble with)[175]
After adjectives, only the auxiliary -nakute is used:[315]
- Amari amaku nakute jōhin na aji da (あまり甘くなくて上品な味だ; transl. It has a delicate taste without being too sweet)[175]
-N(u) de is used mostly by older speakers:[320]
- Hoteru nan ka ni tomaranai/tomaran de, yasumono no heya e tomaru n desu (ホテルなんかに泊まらない・泊まらんで、安物の宿屋へ泊まるんです; transl. We'll stay at cheap inn instead of a hotel or the like)
- Enryo shinai/sen de ii. Totte oke yo. (遠慮しない・せんでいい。取っておけよ。; transl. You needn't be shy. Just take it.)
te form: Grammatical compatibility
The te form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as giving permission or expressing prohibition.[344][313]
The te form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs. These auxiliary verbs are attached after the 〜て.[345]
Finally, the te form is necessary for making polite requests with 下さる (kudasaru) and くれる (kureru). These honorific words are attached with their imperative forms 〜下さい (-kudasai) and 〜くれ (-kure), which is more socially proper than using the true imperative.[347][345]
te form: Advanced usage
During speech, the speaker may terminate a sentence in the te form but slightly lengthen the vowel sound as a natural pause: てぇ (te...). Similar to when a sentence ends with "so..." in English, this serves as a social cue that can:
- give the listener a moment to process;
- indicate the speaker is not finished speaking;
- seek permission from the listener to continue;
- imply that the listener should infer the remainder of the sentence.
Another usage of the te form is, just as with English, the order of clauses may be reversed to create emphasis. However, unlike in English, the sentence will terminate on the te form (rather than between clauses).
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Conjunctive
Summarize
Perspective
The conjunctive form or infinitive functions like an intermediate conjugation; it requires an auxiliary verb to be attached since the conjunctive form is rarely used in isolation. It can also function to link separate clauses (hence the name "conjunctive") in a similar way to the te form above; however usage of the conjunctive form as a conjunction has restrictions. The conjunctive form can function as a gerund (a verb functioning as a noun) without the need for nominalizers, although permissible use cases are limited.[348][314][349][350]
Conjunctive: Conjugation table
The conjunctive/infinitive form uses the ren'yōkei base. It is one of the simplest conjugation patterns due to its lack of irregular conjugations. It does have an additional case for certain honorific verbs, but even those follow a consistent conjugation pattern.
In the domestic tradition of grammar, all inflected words have their own ren'yōkei (連用形), regardless of whether they can stand alone or must be followed by auxiliaries. In western analyses, "infinitives" must be able to stand on their own, and forms with auxiliaries are treated separately. Thus, such forms as -mashi (～まし) and -deshi (～でし) are considered ren'yōkei in the native tradition, but not infinitives in western analyses as they cannot be on their own[351] and must be followed -te (～て) or -ta (～た).
The conjunctive forms of the copulae and of adjectives function adverbially without additional auxiliaries just like those of verbs:
- Ame de kyaku ga naku, shōbai wa agattari da (雨で客がなく、商売は上がったりだ; lit. 'It being raining, customers being nonexistent, business is down', transl. Our business is down because nobody's coming because of the rain)[175]
The verb aru, the adjective nai and the particle -te are instrumental in expanding copulae's and adjectives' conjugation by fusing with their conjunctive forms:
- Imperfective:
- Negative:
- de + nai → de/ja nai
- de + aran(u)/-zu → de/ja aran(u)/-zu
- -ku + nai → -ku nai
- -ku + aran(u)/-zu → -karan(u)/-zu
- Perfective:
- de + atta → de atta → datta
- -ku + atta → -katta
- Conjectural:
- de + arō → de arō → darō
- -ku + arō → -karō
- Imperative:
- de + are → de are
- -ku + are → -kare
- Conditional:
- ni + araba → naraba
- de + areba → de areba
- -te form: -ku + te → -kute
Just like how da can be "split", or unfused, back to de (wa) aru, with added particles, the above fused forms can be split, as in Akaku wa atta. (赤くはあった。; lit. 'Being red? It was indeed.').
The particle -te itself was once a conjunctive form as well, and it combined with aru to make -ta and -tarō, although the latter of which are increasingly displaced by -ta darō or -ta deshō.
Unlike verbal conjunctive forms which can combine with -masu(ru) to make polite forms, as in kakimasu(ru) (書きます(る); 'write'), adjectives use conclusive forms and desu instead, as in akai desu (赤いです; 'be red').
Apart from the standard -ku forms, adjectives also have forms ending in long vowels. They stem from a historical loss of the consonant k, which was complete in conclusive/attributive forms (akaki → akai (赤き→赤い; 'be red'). In conjunctive forms, however, such loss was complete only in western dialects; in standard Japanese, it is restricted to formations with gozaimasu(ru) to make hyper-polite expressions, as in akaku → akō gozaimasu(ru) (赤うございます(る); 'be red'), compared to regularly polite akai desu (赤いです). In cases where there are triply long vowels, such as ooku → oō (多う), the actual pronunciations may only involve doubly long vowels, as in ō gozaimasu. Cases like yowaku → yo(w?)ō (弱う) are phonetically suspect as to whether there is still a lingering w sound and whether there is a reduction to a doubly long vowel (yo(w)ō gozaimasu or yō gozaimasu (?)).[354] Some of these hyper-polite adjectives have become idioms, such as ohayaku → ohayō (gozaimasu) (おはよう(ございます); lit. 'it's early', 'good morning'), omedetaku → omedetō (gozaimasu) (おめでとう(ございます); lit. 'it's wonderful', 'congratulations'), arigataku → arigatō (gozaimasu) (ありがとう(ございます); lit. 'it's rare', 'it's blessed; it's worthwhile; thank you').
Like -ku, -zu can fuse with -aru as well to expand its own conjugation (-zaru, -zareba) independent of -n(u), though these forms are largely confined to elevated language or cliches like mizaru kikazaru iwazaru (見猿聞か猿言わ猿; 'not seeing, not hearing, not speaking'), manekarezaru kyaku (招かれざる客; 'uninvited guest'), motazaru (持たざる; 'have-not'), irazaru (要らざる; 'uncalled-for', synonymous with iran(u) (要らん・要らぬ)[355][356]), etc.[357]
Conjunctive: Grammatical compatibility
The conjunctive form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as expressing purpose[368] or a firm avoidance.[369]
The conjunctive form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs.[348] One of which, ます (masu), has highly irregular inflections.[370][371][372]
Conjunctive: Advanced usage
The conjunctive form, like the te form, connects clauses in a similar way to how "and" does in English. However, the conjunctive and te forms are not usually interchangeable, and each form fulfills specific grammatical purposes. When a pair of verbs have a strong connection in context, only the te form can bridge them. When a pair of verbs are not directly related but happen during a shared period of time, only the conjunctive form can bridge them. Furthermore, if a pair of verbs are both controllable or uncontrollable in nature, the te form must bridge them; otherwise, when a verb is controllable whilst the other verb is uncontrollable, the conjunctive form must bridge them. Finally, the te and conjunctive forms are interchangeable if additional information is included between the verbs.[314][313]
In the case where the conjunctive form is interchangeable with the te form, there is a stylistic means where the conjunctive form is preferred. This avoids 「て...て...て...」 (te...te...te...) repetition, much like how English users might avoid saying "and...and...and...". In practice however, such a strategy is more readily accustomed to writing and more difficult to control in spoken conversation (where the te form is usually elected for every verb).[314]
Another common usage is to form compound words, specifically compound nouns and compound verbs. As for compound nouns, the conjunctive form attaches as a prefix to another noun. Compound verbs are formed in the same way, except the conjunctive form attaches to the imperfective form. This pattern can be used to express mutuality if a transitive verb attaches to 〜合う (-au, to unite).[373]
The conjunctive form is also used in formal honorifics, such as お使い下さい (o tsukai kudasai, "Please use this.").
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Volitional
Summarize
Perspective
The volitional form (also known as the "conjectural form", "tentative form", "presumptive form" and the "hortative form") is used to express speaker's will or intention (volitional), make an inclusive command or invitation (hortative or persuasive)[374] or to make a guess or supposition (presumptive).
Volitional: Conjugation table
The volitional form is created by using the ishikei base, which derived from the mizenkei base through a systematic sound change in Late Middle Japanese triggered by the う (u) suffix. This sound change gave rise to the conjugation class now known as godan. Phonetically, う is surfaced as お (o) in volitional form, unlike う in dictionary/imperfective form; for example, 問う (tou, to ask) and 問おう (toō, let's ask).
The so-called "volitional form" is actually actually a combination of the irrealis form and the auxiliary う, which underwent a systemic historical sound change that affected all the examples below. This sound change motivated the term godan ("five grade"), which replaced yodan ("four grade"). See Japanese godan and ichidan verbs § Godan vs yodan.
Most verbs have volitional meanings, as in shiyō/shimashō (しよう・しましょう; 'let's do it'), although this can be interpreted as self-tentative ("I'll probably do it"). To express tentativity unambiguously, darō, (d(e)) arō or deshō, which is unambiguously tentative, is added, as in suru darō / suru deshō / shimasu deshō (するだろう・するでしょう・しますでしょう; 'he'll probably do it'). In some cases where the subject lacks human agency, the tentative meaning is more plausible, for example, kumorō/kumorimashō (曇ろう・曇りましょう) means "it'll probably be cloudy" tentatively, not *"let's be cloudy" volitionally; ame ga furō / ame ga furimashō (雨が降ろう・雨が降りましょう) means "it'll probably rain", not *"let's rain"; dekiyō/dekimashō (できよう・できましょう) means "probably can" not *"let's be able". These have been increasingly replaced by kumoru darō / kumoru deshō / kumorimasu deshō (曇るだろう・曇るでしょう・曇りますでしょう), ame ga furu darō / ame ga furu deshō / ame ga furimasu deshō (雨が降るだろう・雨が降るでしょう・雨が降りますでしょう) and dekiru darō / dekiru deshō / dekimasu deshō (できるだろう・できるでしょう・できますでしょう). Most adjectives have tentative meanings, as in akakarō (赤かろう; 'it's probably red') with a built-in arō, or increasingly, akai darō/deshō (赤いだろう・でしょう).[376] Arō (tentative) may be substituted with aru darō in writing, and with arimashō for more politeness;[377] and de arō with darō in writing, and with de arimashō for more politeness.[192] The past tentative -ta/-da darō is preferred to -tarō/-darō,[378] deshita deshō to deshitarō, and -mashita deshō to -mashitarō.
Volitional: Grammatical compatibility
The volitional form is also used to describe intention 〜と思う (-to omou)[408] an attempt 〜とする (-to suru) or an imminent action 〜としている (-to shite iru).[409]
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Passive
Summarize
Perspective
The passive form (受身形, ukemikei) or passive-potential[410] refocuses the verb as the target objective of a sentence; it emphasizes the action as the detail of importance. Although a sentence can include a specific subject enacting the passive verb, the subject is not required.[411] The pure passive simply expresses what act is done to the subject, as in B ga A ni yobareru (BがAに呼ばれる; 'B is called by A'). The adversative or "victimizing" passive can further express how the subject suffers from the act being done to an object, as in B ga A ni C o yobareru (BがAにCを呼ばれる; 'B suffers because A calls C'). The passive can also have no passive meaning, but is merely a more honorific way to exalt the subject.[412][413][414] Actual sentences may lack one of the said components (A, B or C) and therefore can become ambiguous (purely passive, adversatively passive or honorific) without additional context, for example kekkonshiki ni yobareru (結婚式に呼ばれる; 'one gets invited to weddings; one suffers because someone else's invited to weddings; those honoroble invite others to weddings').[412] Some verbs, such as korareru (来られる) and arareru (あられる), do not have purely passive meanings, as in B ga A ni korareru (BがAに来られる; 'B suffers because A comes') and B ga A de arareru (BがAであられる; 'B is (honorably) A').[415]
Note that historically and dialectically, the "passive" construction also had or has potential use. See #Potential for more.
Passive: Conjugation table
The passive form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the れる・られる (reru/rareru) suffix. For ichidan verbs and 来る (kuru), the passive form and the potential form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same られる (rareru) suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.
Passive: Grammatical compatibility
After conjugating into the passive form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a passive verb (e.g. 言われる (iwareru, be said)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言われて (iwarete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言われます (iwaremasu)).
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Potential
Summarize
Perspective
The potential form describes the capability of doing something.[465] It is also used to ask favors from others, just as "Can you...?" does in English. However, unlike in English, the potential form does not request permission; the phrase この林檎が食べられる？ (kono ringo ga taberareru?, "Can I eat this apple?") is always understood to mean "Do I have the ability to eat this apple?" or "Is this apple edible?" (but never "May I eat this apple?" ).
For transitive verbs, the potential form uses the が (ga) particle to mark direct objects, instead of the を (o) particle.
Potential: Conjugation table
The potential form is created by using the kanōkei base, followed by the る・(ら)れる (ru/(ra)reru) suffix. する (suru, to do) has its own suppletive potential form 出来る (dekiru, can do). For ichidan verbs and 来る (kuru), the potential form and the passive form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same られる (rareru) suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.
For godan verbs, short potential verbs (hanaseru (話せる; 'can speak')) are conventional in Tokyo Japanese, while long verbs, identical to passive verbs (hanasareru (話される; 'can speak; be spoken')), have become largely obsolescent or non-Tokyo. On the other hand, non-godan-based potential verbs such as taberareru (食べられる; 'can eat; be eaten') remain ambiguous. Such ambiguity can be resolved, at least colloquially, by a process dubbed ra-nuki kotoba (ら抜き言葉; lit. 'ra-less word'),[465] thus distinguishing the short taberareru → tabereru (食べられる→食べれる; 'can eat') for the potential and the long taberareru (食べられる; 'be eaten') for the passive. This process was originally dialectal, but has been increasingly adopted by Tokyo speakers.[466] Preference polls have shown that even among ra-nuki kotoba users, the likelihood of usage significantly decreases as the mora count in the verb stem exceeds two; in other words, mi.re.ru (見れる; one-mora stem) and ta.be.re.ru (食べれる; two-mora stem) are highly likely, but shi.n.ji.re.ru (信じれる; three-mora stem), ka.n.ga.e.re.ru (考えれる; four-mora stem), o.to.shi.i.re.re.ru (陥れれる; five-mora stem) are much less likely.[467] Other dialects may only use long potential verbs.[468]
The hypothetical potential verb *分かれる (wakareru; 'can understand') is not used. The adversative passive 分かられる (wakarareru; 'suffer from having it understood') and causative 分からせる (wakaraseru; 'cause it to be understood') are acceptable, however.[469]
Apart from the dedicated potential verbs, the circumlocutory phrase koto ga dekiru (ことができる) can be used instead, as in iku koto ga dekiru (行くことができる; 'can go'), yameru koto ga dekiru (止めることができる; 'can stop'), etc. Depending on usage, the particles wa and mo can be used instead of ga.[470]
Most contemporary -suru verbs do not really have underlying potential verbs and must use suru koto ga dekiru by suppletion, which can be shortened to dekiru only for Group-A verbs, as in yasuku (suru koto ga) dekiru (安く(することが)できる; 'can make cheap'), benkyō (suru koto ga) dekiru (勉強(することが)できる; 'can study'), onegai (suru koto ga) dekiru (お願い(することが)できる; 'can request'); but nessuru koto ga dekiru (熱することができる; 'can heat'), kyōsuru koto ga dekiru (供することができる; 'can offer'), etc. Non-Group-A verbs, which have become more like godan (partially or completely), do have potential verbs, such as aiseru (愛せる; 'can love') (short)/aisareru (愛される; 'can love; be loved') (long), nakuseru (無くせる; 'can lose')/nakusareru (無くされる; 'can lose; be lost'), etc; or more like ichidan, although probably without ra-nuki kotoba, as in ōjirareru/ōzerareru (応じられる・応ぜられる; 'can respond'),[471] or with it, as in shinjireru (信じれる; 'can believe').[466]
Potential: Grammatical compatibility
After conjugating into the potential form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a potential verb (e.g. 言える (ieru, can say)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言えて (iete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言えます (iemasu)).
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Causative
Summarize
Perspective
The causative form (使役形, shiekikei) is used to express that a subject was forced or allowed to do something.[477]
- [i] The director causing the action can be specified with the は (wa) or が (ga) particle, whilst the people forced to do the action are specified with the に (ni) particle.[477]
Causative: Conjugation table
The causative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the せる・させる (-seru/-saseru; ichidan) suffix. Colloquially, the shorter す・さす (-su/-sasu; godan) can be used, which may cause some verbs to take the same form, such as ugokasu (動かす; 'cause to move; move it') and ugokaseru (動かせる; 'can cause to move; can move it').[478] -Su/-sasu was the nidan ancestor of the modern ichidan -seru/-saseru; it became yodan sometime during Late Middle Japanese.[192] A survey found that respondents were more likely to use -(sa)su, which is now godan, over -(sa)seru, if the original verb was already godan.[479]
The causatives of honorific verbs do not seem to occur,[416] although at least one author has artificially used nasaraseta (なさらせた) in their literal translations of Amdo Tibetan honorific causatives.[480]
Pseudo-classical causative
The pseudo-classical causative makes use of -shimeru (～しめる) instead of -(sa)seru as shown above. It has ichidan conjugation, and it is meant to emulate the true classical causative with -shimu which has nidan conjugation. As a pseudo-classical auxiliary, -shimeru combines only with classical irrealis forms, which in most cases are not different from modern ones; but in the case of suru which has three irrealis forms, only the classical se- is used as in seshimeru, not *sashimeru nor *shishimeru.[513]
Causative: Grammatical compatibility
After conjugating into the causative form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a causative verb (e.g. 言わせる (iwaseru, caused to say)) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the te form (て形, te kei) to join sequential statements (言わせて (iwasete)), or the conjunctive form to append the polite -masu (〜ます) auxiliary verb (言わせます (iwasemasu)).
Causative passive
The causative passive form expresses that a reluctant subject was positioned (or forced) into doing something they would rather avoid. The causative passive form is obtained by conjugating a verb into its causative form and further conjugating it into the passive form. However, because words such as 待たせられる (mataserareru) are considered difficult to pronounce, the conjugational suffix is often contracted in colloquial speech. Specific to godan verbs only, the せら〜 (sera-; from せられる) contracts into さ〜 (sa-).[514]
Imperative
Summarize
Perspective
The imperative form functions as firm instructions do in English. It is used to give orders to subordinates (such as within military ranks, or towards pet animals) and to give direct instructions within intimate relationships (for example, within family or close friends). When directed towards a collective rather than an individual, the imperative form is used for mandatory action or motivational speech.[180] The imperative form is also used in reported speech.
However, the imperative form is perceived as confrontational or aggressive when used for commands; instead, it is more common to use the te form (with or without the 〜下さい (-kudasai, please do) suffix), or the conjunctive form's polite imperative suffix, 〜なさい (-nasai).[180]
Imperative: Conjugation table
The imperative form uses the meireikei base.
With non-godan verbs, there are two imperative forms, one ending in 〜ろ (-ro) and one in 〜よ (-yo). -Ro has been characterized as used for speech, while -yo as used for writing.[543] In actuality, this corresponds to a difference between modern Japanese (口語, kōgo; lit. 'oral language') based on the eastern Tokyo Japanese dialect,[ay] and Classical Japanese (文語, bungo; lit. 'literary language'), various literary stages of premodern Japanese based on western dialects.[545][546][547] Both -ro and -yo were interjectional particles in Old Japanese,[548][az][549][550] and were sometimes optional, sometimes obligatory with non-godan verbs. -Yo became obligatory with non-godan verbs toward Early Middle Japanese, and its reduced variant -i arose during Late Middle Japanese.[551][ba] Historically and dialectically, mi-yo/mi-i/mi-ro/mi (見よ・見い・見ろ・見; 'look!'), oki-yo/oki-i/oki-ro/oki (起きよ・起きい・起きろ・起き; 'get up!'), ke-yo/ke-i/ke-ro/ke (蹴よ・蹴い・蹴ろ・蹴; 'kick!'),[bb] ake-yo/ake-i/ake-ro/ake (開けよ・開けい・開けろ・開け; 'open!') (all ichidan), se-yo/shi-yo/se-i/shi-i/se-ro/shi-ro/se/shi (せよ・しよ・せい・しい・せろ・しろ・せ・し; suru, 'do!') and ko-yo/ki-yo/ko-i/ki-i/ko-ro/ki-ro/ko/ki (来よ・来い・来ろ・来; kuru, 'come!') were all possible,[552][553][554] with -yo and -i being the western forms, and -ro being the eastern form.[555][556][557][558] The division between western -yo/-i and eastern -ro still exists today.[559][560] According to a 1991 survey:
- -Ro dominates eastern dialects.[561][562][563]
- -Yo is found mostly in central Chūbu and eastern Kyushu.
- -I dominates western dialects in Honshu and Shikoku, and marginally in Shitamachi, Tokyo.[544]
- -Re, likely as a shortened -ro-i,[544] is found in the northernmost dialects in Hokkaido and the southernmost ones in Kyushu.
- Shiro ("do!") dominates eastern dialects, while sē does western dialects. Seyo and shiyo concentrate in central Chūbu, while sero and sere do in western Kyushu.[564]
- There exist such fused forms as myo(o) (← miyo, "look!"), okyo(o) (← okiyo, "rise!"), akyo(o) (← akeyo, "open!") and sho(o) (← seyo, "do!") in Shizuoka Prefecture and some surrounding areas.
- Koi ("come!") occurs consistently across Japan, although kō has a strong presence in the east. There is a concentration of kē and ke in Kyushu. Koyo is rare in contemporary Japanese dialects,[565] despite being the standard form in classical Japanese. According to another account, koro occurs in an Akita dialect, while kiro is found in Ibaraki. Other variants include kiyo, kī, kui, keyo, etc.[550]
- In some dialects, nero(o), okiro(o), akero(o), shiro(o), koro(o) are actually volitional forms, not imperative forms.[566][567][568][569]
In modern Tokyo Japanese (eastern, specifically Yamanote Japanese), -yo largely displaced -ro in non-imperative contexts. -Yo can be optionally added to modern imperative forms with no historical -yo, as in kake yo (書けよ; 'write!'), miro yo (見ろよ), shiro yo (しろよ), koi yo (来いよ); -ro can no longer be used this way, although historically it used to occasionally be, as with yodan imperatives like oke ro (置けろ; 'put!') or yome ro (読めろ; 'read!').[550] Although -yo imperative forms already contain -yo and are primarily "written", it is not impossible for them to be followed by another colloquial -yo, as in Kura o akeyo yo (倉を開けよよ; 'Open the storehouse, would you?')[570] or Mō neyo yo (もう寝よよ; 'Just sleep already, would you?').[571] Apart from the difference between eastern and western dialects, there exists a register difference -yo and -ro within standard Japanese.[558] -Yo, as the more prestigious classical form of the former western capitals (Nara, Kyoto and Osaka), is still used in formal instructions, such as on test forms,[572] in academic questions,[573] on signage, in formal or polite quoted commands[544] or concessive clauses (spoken[574][575][576][577] or written[578][579][580]), etc. On the other hand, -ro, as the more colloquially common form, has a connotation of rudeness.[558][bc]
Are and de (wa) are have limited use in formal contexts, for example Kami mo shōran are (神も照覧あれ; 'may God be my witness'),[544] hikari are (光あれ; 'let there be light'), Ito takaki tokoro ni wa eikō, Kami ni are, chi ni wa heiwa, mikokoro ni kanau hito ni are. (いと高きところには栄光、神にあれ、地には平和、御心に適う人にあれ。; 'In the highest realm, glory be unto God, on earth, peace be unto those who earn his grace.'),[581] itsumo Kami ni shitagatte are. (いつも神に従ってあれ。; 'always be obedient to God.'),[582] shōjiki de are (正直であれ; 'be honest').[544] De (wa) are also has a concessive use, as in Riyū wa nan de are, bōryoku wa yoku nai yo. (理由は何であれ，暴力はよくないよ。; 'No matter the reason, violence is not good.'),[583] Nan no heya de are, mō koko ni tomete morau hoka wa nai (何の部屋であれ、もうここに泊めてもらうほかはない; 'Whatever the room may be, we have no choice but to stay here.').[584] This has been linked to a probable contraction from the identically sounding conditional base, de are, preceding the concessive particle -do, as in de aredo.[584] However, unambiguously imperative bases in ni seyo and ni shiro also have concessive uses, as in Sanka suru ni seyo, shinai ni seyo, toriaezu renraku o kudasai. (参加するにせよ，しないにせよ，とりあえず連絡を下さい。; 'Whether you partake or not, please get in touch soon.') and Soba ni shiro, udon ni shiro, menrui nara nan de mo ii n da. (そばにしろ，うどんにしろ，麺類なら何でもいいんだ。; 'Soba, udon, whatever, any kind of noodles will do.')[583]
Unlike are, adjectival imperative forms derived from fusions with it (-ku are → -kare), seem to be used mostly for concession, as in ookare sukunakare (多かれ少なかれ; 'be there more or less'), takakare yasukare (高かれ安かれ; 'be it expensive or cheap'), tsuyokare yowakare (強かれ弱かれ; 'be it strong or weak'), osokare hayakare (遅かれ早かれ; 'be it later or sooner'), yokare ashikare (良かれ悪しかれ; 'be it good or bad'),[585] tookare chikakare (遠かれ近かれ; 'be it far or near'), etc and occasionally for elevated wishes, as in Yasukare (安かれ; transl. May you be at peace)[175][bd] or Sachi ookare (幸多かれ; transl. Best of luck to you).[192] The exceptional nakare ("let there not be") expresses elevated and/or motivational negative commands or wishes, as in Ogoru nakare! Jimintō (驕るなかれ！自民党; transl. Do not be prideful! O, Liberal Democratic Party), Taka ga benpi to yuu nakare (高が便秘と言うなかれ; transl. Don't say it's just constipation), etc. The phrase koto nakare (事なかれ; lit. 'let there be no incident') is used in koto nakare shugi (事なかれ主義; 'principle of not rocking the boat').[175] Nakare behaves syntactically like the negative imperative particle na, which is similarly placed after an attributive/conclusive verb, thus ogoru na (驕るな; 'don't be prideful'), yuu na (言うな; 'don't say'), etc.[587] Unfused -ku are forms have also been found, as in kiyoku are (清くあれ; 'be pure!').[588]
Non‑volitional verbs, such as 分かる (wakaru, to understand) and できる (dekiru, to be able), have imperative forms (for these two verbs, 分かれ (wakare) and できろ (dekiro)), but these appear to be relatively recent innovations, and usage may be limited to informal contexts.
Conditional
Summarize
Perspective
The conditional form (also known as the "hypothetical form", "provisional form" and the "provisional conditional eba form") is broadly equivalent to the English conditionals "if..." or "when...". It describes a condition that provides a specific result, with emphasis on the condition.[640] The conditional form is used to describe hypothetical scenarios or general truths.[641]
Conditional: Conjugation table
The conditional form is created by using the kateikei base, followed by a conditional particle, usually the modern hypothetical/provisional ば (ba), but there is also the classical concessive ど(も) (do (mo)).
The -eba ending can be colloquially reduced to -ya(a), where the consonant b is so weakened to the point complete omission, as in ieba → *iewa → iya(a) (言えば; 'provided that one says'), ikeba → *ikewa → ikya(a) (行けば; 'provided that one goes'), mireba → *mirewa → mirya(a) (見れば; 'provided that one looks'), etc. In cases like mateba → *matewa → matya(a) (待てば; 'provided that one waits'), hanaseba → *hanasewa → hanasya(a) (話せば; 'provided that one speaks'), etc, the consonants ty and sy may be used rather than ch and sh.[642] The adjectival ending -kereba → -kerya(a) in particular can be further reduced to -kya(a), as in akakereba → *akakerewa → akakerya(a) → akakya(a) (赤ければ; 'provided that one's red'). In western dialects where -n is used instead of -nai, there are -nkerya(a) and -nkya(a) (from -nkereba), and -nya (from -neba).[643] These colloquial reductions are analogous to how -te wa/-de wa are reduced to -tya(a)/-dya(a), -te aru/-de aru/-te yaru/-de yaru to -ty(a)aru/-dy(a)aru, de wa to dya(a) to ja(a), and de atte to dy(a)atte to j(a)atte, etc, although some of these reductions may be more dialectal than the others.[644]
Provisional vs hypothetical
In classical Japanese, there was a distinction between the provisional izenkei (已然形) base, which expresses a prerequisite condition ("provided that one is/does"), and the hypothetical mizenkei (未然形) base, which expresses a contingent condition ("if one happens to be/do"). Furthermore, when these constructions are used in perfect clauses, they express temporal conditions ("when/because one had been/done").[674] Modern Japanese replaced the classical hypothetical base with the classical perfect hypothetical (which is dubbed the conditional by Martin (2004:564–566)), although the classical hypothetical lingers on in cliched phrases. The only exception is nara(ba), which became provisional. In the following table, the examples are given for kaku (書く; 'write'), suru (する; 'do'), da/de aru (だ・である; 'be') and yoi (良い; 'be good').
The idiom tatoeba (例えば; lit. 'if one happens to make a simile', 'for example') was the hypothetical form of the nidan verb tatō (例ふ; 'to make a simile').
Conditional: Advanced usage
In its negative conjugation (〜なければ, -nakereba), the conditional form can express obligation or insistence by attaching to 〜ならない (-naranai, to not happen) or 〜なりません (-narimasen, to not happen (polite)). This pattern of grammar is a double negative which loosely translates to "to avoid that action, will not happen". Semantically cancelling out the negation becomes "to do that action, will happen" ; however the true meaning is "I must do that action".[675][676]
Politeness stylization
Summarize
Perspective
The auxilaries desu and -masu, and the verb gozaru can be used to enhance politeness. In general, the more verbose forms with -masu and even gozaimasu are more polite.[677][678]
- Desu substitutes de aru and da for more politeness. Desu adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
- de aru / da → desu ("are")
- Desu makes verbs and adjectives more polite. Desu only adds politeness:
- akai → akai desu ("are red"), akaku nai → akaku nai desu ("aren't red")
- akakatta → akakatta desu ("were red"), akaku nakatta → akaku nakatta desu ("weren't red")
- kaku → kaku desu ("write"), kakanai → kakanai desu ("don't write")
- kaita → kaita desu ("wrote"), kakanakatta → kakanakatta desu ("didn't write")
- nai → nai desu ("don't exist")
- nakatta → nakatta desu ("didn't exist")
- de nai → de nai desu ("aren't")
- de nakatta → de nakatta desu ("weren't")
- Deshita substitutes de atta and datta for more politeness. Deshita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
- de atta / datta → deshita ("were")
- Deshita makes past adjectives more polite. Deshita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
- akakatta → akai deshita ("were red")
- -Masu makes nonpast affirmative verbs more polite. -Masu adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
- kaku → kakimasu ("write")
- aru → arimasu ("exist")
- de aru / da → de arimasu ("are")
- -Masen makes nonpast negative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses tense and negativity:
- kakanai → kakimasen ("don't write")
- nai → arimasen ("don't exist")
- de nai → de arimasen ("aren't")
- -Masen deshita makes past negative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses negativity, while deshita maintains politeness and expresses tense:
- akaku nakatta → akaku arimasen deshita ("weren't red")
- kakanakatta → kakimasen deshita ("didn't write")
- nakatta → arimasen deshita ("didn't exist")
- de nakatta → de arimasen deshita ("weren't")
- Adjectives cannot directly combine with -masen, but with arimasen:[bk]
- akaku nai → akaku arimasen ("aren't red")
- akaku nakatta → akaku arimasen deshita ("weren't red")
- -Mashita makes past affirmative verbs more polite. -Mashita adds politeness and expresses tense and affirmativity:
- kaita → kakimashita ("wrote")
- atta → arimashita ("existed")
- de atta / datta → de arimashita ("were")
- Desu can further attach to -masu and -mashita for even more politeness, but such attachments have been characterized as "unrefined" or "ingratiating":[679]
- kakimasu → kakimasu desu ("write"), kakimashita → kakimashita desu ("wrote")
- Deshō makes nonpast affirmative tentative verbs, and past and nonpast tentative adjectives, more polite. The main verbs/adjectives express tense and affirmativity or negativity, while deshō adds politeness and expresses tentativity:
- akai de arō / akai darō / akakarō → akai deshō ("are probably red")
- akakatta de arō / akakatta darō / akakattarō → akakatta deshō ("were probably red")
- akaku nai de arō / akaku nai darō / akaku nakarō → akaku nai/arimasen deshō ("aren't probably red")
- akaku nakatta de arō / akaku nakatta darō / akaku nakattarō → akaku nakatta deshō ("weren't probably red")
- kaku de arō / kaku darō / kakō → kakimasu/kaku deshō ("probably write")
- kaita de arō / kaita darō / kaitarō → kakimashita/kaita deshō ("probably wrote")
- kakanai de arō / kakanai darō / kakanakarō → kakimasen/kakanai deshō ("probably don't write")
- kakanakatta de arō / kakanakatta darō / kakanakattarō → kakanakatta deshō ("probably didn't write")
- aru de arō / aru darō / arō → arimasu/aru deshō ("probably exist")
- atta de arō / atta darō / attarō → arimashita/atta deshō ("probably existed")
- nai de arō / nai darō / nakarō → arimasen/nai deshō ("probably don't exist")
- nakatta de arō / nakatta darō / nakattarō → nakatta deshō ("probably didn't existed")
- de aru de arō / de aru darō / de arō / darō → deshō / de arimasu deshō ("probably are")
- de atta de arō / de atta darō / de attarō / datta darō / dattarō → de arimashita/atta deshō ("probably were")
- de nai de arō / de nai darō / de nakarō → de arimasen/nai deshō ("probably aren't")
- de nakatta de arō / de nakatta darō / de nakattarō → de nakatta deshō ("probably weren't")
- -Masen deshita deshō makes past negative tentative verbs more polite. -Masen adds politeness and expresses negativity, deshita maintains politeness and expresses tense, while deshō maintains politeness and expresses tentativity:
- akaku nakatta darō / akaku nakattarō → akaku arimasen deshita deshō ("probably weren't red")
- kakanakatta darō / kakanakattarō → kakimasen deshita deshō ("probably didn't write")
- nakatta darō / nakattarō → arimasen deshita deshō ("probably didn't existed")
- de nakatta darō / de nakattarō → de arimasen deshita deshō ("probably weren't")
- Deshitarō can substitute deshita deshō, and -mashitarō can substitute -mashita deshō, although both are uncommon.
- -Mashō makes nonpast affirmative tentative/hortative verbs more polite. Whether the verb is tentative or hortative is contextual, but verbs with human agency tend to be hortative, and those without tend to be tentative. -Mashō adds politeness, and expresses tense, affirmativity and tentativity/hortativity:
- kakō → kakimashō ("probably write; want to write; let's write")
- kumorō → kumorimashō ("it's probably cloudy")
- arō → arimashō ("probably exist")
- de arō / darō → de arimashō ("probably are")
- Gozaimasu substitutes or appends to -masu, arimasu and desu for even more politeness. Extra instances of desu, deshita and deshō can be added to make up for missing forms. The negative and past forms can be based on the original verb/adjective, or based on gozaimasu, or supplied with deshita:
- Nonpast affirmatives:
- akai desu → akō gozaimasu ("are red"), akai deshō → akō gozaimashō ("are probably red")
- kakimasu / kaku desu → kaku (no) de gozaimasu / kakimasu de gozaimasu ("write"), kakimasu/kaku deshō / kakimashō → kaku (no) de gozaimashō / kakimasu de gozaimashō ("probably write")
- arimasu / aru desu → gozaimasu ("exist"), arimasu/aru deshō / arimashō → gozaimashō ("probably exist")
- desu / de arimasu → de gozaimasu ("are"), deshō / de arimasu/aru deshō / de arimashō → de gozaimashō ("probably are")
- Nonpast negatives based on gozaimasen:
- akaku nai desu / akaku arimasen → akaku/akō gozaimasen ("aren't red"), akaku nai/arimasen deshō → akaku/akō gozaimasen deshō ("aren't probably red")
- kakimasen / kakanai desu → kaku (no) de gozaimasen / kakimasu de gozaimasen ("don't write"), kakimasen/kakanai deshō → kaku (no) de gozaimasen deshō / kakimasu de gozaimasen deshō ("probably don't write")
- arimasen / nai desu → gozaimasen ("don't exist"), arimasen/nai deshō → gozaimasen deshō ("probably don't exist")
- de arimasen / de nai desu → de gozaimasen ("aren't"), de arimasen/nai deshō → de gozaimasen deshō ("probably are")
- Nonpast negatives based on the main verbs:
- kakimasen / kakanai desu → kakanai (no) de gozaimasu / kakimasen de gozaimasu ("don't write"), kakimasen/kakanai deshō → kakanai (no) de gozaimashō / kakimasen de gozaimashō ("probably don't write")
- Past affirmatives based on gozaimashita:
- akakatta desu / akai deshita → akō gozaimashita ("were red"), akakatta deshō → akō gozaimashita deshō ("were probably red")
- kakimashita / kaita desu → kaku (no) de gozaimashita ("wrote"), kakimashita/kaita deshō → kaku (no) de gozaimashita deshō ("probably wrote")
- arimashita / atta desu → gozaimashita ("existed"), arimashita/atta deshō → gozaimashita deshō ("probably existed")
- deshita / de arimashita → de gozaimashita ("were"), deshita deshō / de arimashita/atta deshō → de gozaimashita deshō ("probably were")
- Past affirmatives based on the main verbs/adjectives:
- akakatta desu / akai deshita → akakatta de gozaimasu ("were red"), akakatta deshō → akakatta de gozaimashō ("were probably red")
- kakimashita / kaita desu → kaita (no) de gozaimasu ("wrote"), kakimashita/kaita deshō → kaita (no) de gozaimashō ("probably wrote")
- Past negatives based on gozaimasen deshita:
- akaku nakatta desu / akaku arimasen deshita → akaku/akō gozaimasen deshita ("weren't red"), akaku nakatta/arimasen deshō → akaku/akō gozaimasen deshita deshō ("were probably red")
- kakimasen deshita / kakanakatta desu → kaku (no) de gozaimasen deshita ("didn't write"), kakimasen deshita deshō / kakanakatta deshō → kaku (no) de gozaimasen deshita deshō ("probably didn't write")
- arimasen deshita / nakatta desu → gozaimasen deshita ("didn't exist"), arimasen deshita deshō / nakatta deshō → gozaimasen deshita deshō ("probably didn't exist")
- de arimasen deshita / de nakatta desu → de gozaimasen deshita ("weren't"), de arimasen deshita deshō / de nakatta deshō → de gozaimasen deshita deshō ("probably weren't")
- Past negatives based on the main verbs/adjectives:
- akaku nakatta desu / akaku arimasen deshita → akaku nakatta de gozaimasu ("weren't red"), akaku nakatta/arimasen deshō → akaku nakatta de gozaimashō ("were probably red")
- kakimasen deshita / kakanakatta desu → kakanakatta (no) de gozaimasu ("didn't write"), kakimasen deshita deshō / kakanakatta deshō → kakanakatta (no) de gozaimashō ("probably didn't write")
- Nonpast affirmatives:
- Gozaimasu deshō can substitute gozaimashō.
In principle, desu, de arimasu and de gozaimasu can be mere politeness enhancers and can attach to anything, even in such cases as -masu desu, -mashita desu, -masu de gozaimasu[677] or (de) gozaimasu de gozaimasu.[680][681][682]
See also
Notes
- When spelt in hiragana, the standard spelling is still いう, not *ゆう.[12][13] This convention, along with the particles wa (は), e (へ) and o (を), is retained from historical kana orthography for practical purposes. For yuu (言う), the kana spelling (いう) is in keeping with other conjugational forms such as iwanai (いわない) and itta (いった). Yuu (言う; 'say') is possibly homophonous with yuu (結う; 'tie (hair)'),[14] except that the latter can be unaccented or accented, while the former is only unaccented.
- The verb 来る (kuru) has no dedicated kanōkei base. Instead, the passive form 来られる (korareru) is used to express the potential sense. する lacks a kanōkei base; instead, the suppletive ichidan verb できる (dekiru) is used as the potential form of する.[2][16] See also the § Passive: Conjugation table section below.
- The meaning of the term 未然形 (mizenkei; irrealis) originates from its archaic usage with the conditional 〜ば (-ba) suffix in Old Japanese and Classical Japanese.[22] The conjugated forms in the modern language, such as the passive and causative forms, do not invoke an irrealis mood, but the term mizenkei was retained.
- The mizenkei base for verbs ending in 〜う (-u) appears to be an exceptional case with the unexpected 〜わ (-wa). This realization of -wa is a leftover from past sound changes, an artifact preserved from the archaic Japanese -fu from -pu verbs (which would have yielded, regularly, -wa from -fa from -pa). This is noted with historical kana orthography in dictionaries; for example, 言う (yuu) from 言ふ (ifu) from ipu and 言わぬ (iwanu) from 言はぬ (ifanu) (from ipanu).[23] In modern Japanese, original instances of mid‑word consonant [w] have since been dropped before all vowels except [a].[23][24][25] (For more on this shift in consonants, see Old Japanese § Consonants, Early Middle Japanese § Consonants, and Late Middle Japanese § /h/ and /p/). Yuwa- is quite common among a number of actors.[17]
- For verbs like kau (買う; 'buy'), yuu (言う; 'say'), etc, there is a clear preference for sokuonbin in northern and eastern dialects, as in katte (買って), itte/yutte (言って) (with yutte being less common generally or by individual speakers who have used both[17]); and for u-onbin in western and southern dialects, as in kōte (買うて), yūte (言うて).[29][30] However, according to two surveys conducted in 2016 and 2017, at least some speakers, particularly female college students from Notre Dame Seishin University, from the western prefecture of Okayama, showed a strong preference for itta n/yutta n (言ったん), even though the broader public still preferred yūta n, and there was a discreprancy in preference for the said forms and itta no/yutta no/yūta no (言ったの).[17]
- Historically not distinguished from the passive.
- (De wa/ja) aranai would be the regular forms, but these are very rarely used, for example in Honma ni uso de wa aranai to yuu no ja na (本間に嘘ではあらないというのじゃな),[41] Tosa to te oni no kuni de mo hebi no kuni de mo aranai mono o (土佐とて鬼の国でも蛇の国でもあらないものを), etc.[57][58] In Murakami Haruki's 2017 novel Killing Commendatore, the character "Commendatore", who is characterized as having "an odd way of speaking" that is "not the way ordinary people would speak",[59] often, but not always, uses aranai in place of nai.
- Hypothetically, de aran datta/deshita and de arimasen datta are possible, but they are either obsolete or dialectal.
- No longer audible on the surface level as it fused with the conjectural auxiliary -u to make the form below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in だらう, though the actual pronunciation was still darō.
- For more speficic derivatives, see mentions of aru (ある) in the following sections.
- Only audible in the negative de (wa) arimasen(u) shown above. When combining with the conjectural auxiliary -u, it became the form shown below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in ませう, though the actual pronunciation was still mashō.
- No longer audible on the surface level as it fused with the conjectural auxiliary -u to make the form below. Historically still spelt out in modern literature before spelling reform, as in でせう, though the actual pronunciation was still deshō.
- Some traditional descriptions also count dat in datta ("was/were"), which was historically de arita, as well as deshi in deshita.
- -Masuru is characterized as "pseudo-literary"[166] or faux archaic,[167] and generally attributive only: Wakayama ni orimasuru haha (和歌山に居りまする母; 'my mother who is in Wakayama'), Taku e de mo maitte iru yō ni itasō ka to zonjimasuru no de gozaimasu (宅へでも参っているように痛そうかと存じまするのでございます; 'I am wondering whether I should decide to come and stay perhaps at your house'). It is sometimes used where a conclusive form is expected, and not used where an attributive form is expected: Sore ni gisei no tame o omotte mimasuru to, geshuku ni okimasu no wa ikaga de gozaimashō (それに犠牲の為を思って見ますると、下宿に置きますのはいかがでございましょう; 'And thinking of the victims' welfare, how about putting them in a boarding house?'). The conjugational similarity between -masu and suru suggests an etymological link.[168]
- The classical nashi and yoshi in particular are now more of cliches rather than catch-all representatives of adjectives in general. Yoshi is also used as an interjection ("Good!" or "Alright!").
- Elevated -ki attributive forms of adjectives have been used in cliches as well as titles for books and fictional characters, such as jinkaku naki shadan (人格無き社団; 'unincorporated association'),[175] Osorenaki Tansasha, Akiri (恐れなき探査者、アキリ; 'Akiri, Fearless Voyager'),[176] furuki yoki jidai (古き良き時代; 'the good old days'),[175] yoki Samaria-bito/-jin (善きサマリア人; 'the good Samaritan'), Utsukushiku Aoki Donau (美しく青きドナウ; 'The Blue Danube'), Aoki Me no Otome (青き眼の乙女; transl. Maiden with Eyes of Blue),[177] Akaki Ryū (赤き竜; transl. Crimson Dragon),[178] Atarashiki Mura (新しき村; lit. 'New Village'), Imawashiki Tsurīfōku (忌まわしきツリーフォーク; 'Ambominable Treefolk'),[179] etc.
- For godan verbs ending in 〜う (-u), the "う" changes to "わ" (wa) in the negative conjugation. It does not change to "あ" (a).
- Functionally, aranu is usually an attributive adjective that idiomatically means "unexpected" or "untoward",[202][203] as in aranu koto o kuchibashiru (あらぬことを口走る; 'blurt something out out of left field'). It can still have a literal meaning and be used predicatively just like nai, but for literary or faux-archaic effect, as in the Parmenidian phrase aru mono wa ari, aranu mono wa aranu (あるものはあり、あらぬものはあらぬ; transl. that which is, is, that which is not, is not).
- These could hypothetically be the negatives of aisuru (愛する; 'love'), but they are more likely the negatives of aiseru (愛せる; 'can love') instead. See The bases of suru for more.
- 死ぬ (shinu, to die) is the only verb with the ぬ (nu) suffix, in the entire Japanese vocabulary.
- For verbs like kau (買う; 'buy'), yuu (言う; 'say'), etc, there is a clear preference for sokuonbin in northern and eastern dialects, as in katte (買って), itte/yutte (言って); and for u-onbin in western and southern dialects, as in kōte (買うて), yūte (言うて).[29][30] In standard Japanese (eastern), however, there are three exceptions where u-onbin is preferred, tōte (問うて; 'ask; inquire'), kōte (請うて・乞うて; 'ask; request') and kōte (恋うて; 'long for').[275][153][276] These distinctly elevated western forms are favored as the verbs themselves are inherently elevated.[277] For these verbs, sokuonbin is rare,[275] but not nonexistent. Forms such as itōte (厭うて), ōta (負うた), sōta (沿うた), notamōta (宣うた),[275] tamōte (給うて)[278] have been reported as well.
- This conjugation is not reciprocated in the perfective form; the past tense of ない (-nai) is なかった (-nakatta, was not).
- Da is the eastern form. The western form is ja (← dya).
- -Karu is no longer productive in modern Tokyo Japanese, only -ku aru and -ku arimasu are. In some cases, there is a meaning difference between a form with aru and one without: yoi koto would mean "a good thing", while yoku aru koto would mean "a thing that occurs often ('well')". In Kyushu, -karu was reduced further to -ka.[353]
- In this particular case, the eastern vowel i replaced the original western vowel e. See The bases of suru for more.
- Unlike in the examples above, the original vowel e has not been reintroduced.
- irassharareru (いらっしゃられる),[425][426][427] ossharareru (仰られる).[427][428][429]
Excessively honorific verbs have been proscribed by textbooks, but they seem somewhat tolerable by speakers, even though they are still not as frequent with options without -reru.[430][431] There are historical precedents of such double honorifics dating back to the Edo period.[432] - Serareru is aid to be "pseudo-literary" (meant to emulate the writing style of classical Japanese) by Martin (2004:289). Shirareru is rare for Group-A verbs,[441] and is not to be confused with shirareru (知られる; 'be known'), which may also be spelt in hiragana.
- For specific example quotations, see #Passive: Conjugation table
- A quote attributed to Steve Jobs.
- Compare the alternative forms of joi/ii (良い), yuku/iku (行く).
- This verb is primarily godan, therefore the more common imperative is actually kere.
- The author argues that the imperative forms of most verbs are inherently rude in speech, barring those of honorific verbs which are presumed to be polite, such as irasshai (いらっしゃい; 'come, please!'), asobase (遊ばせ; 'play, please!'), kudasai (下さい; 'give me, please!'). The problem is that, with the sole exception of goranjiro (御覧じろ; 'look, please!'), most of these verbs' conjugations (yodan/godan) have nothing to do with -ro (non-yodan/godan only), giving -ro an unavoidable connotation of rudeness. -Yo, on the other hand, is associated with classical Japanese (the "written" language) and therefore is the only appropriate option in formal contexts, even in speech.
- Originally osshare (おっしゃれ), kudasare (下され), nasare (為され), gozare (御座れ), just like other godan/yodan (四段) verbs, though *irasshare (いらっしゃれ) was not found. These forms are obsolescent and only used for special effect, such as in advertisements.[358] Historically, honorific verbs were nidan (二段) rather than godan/yodan, and western imperative forms like iraserareyo (いらせられよ; → irasshai), ōserareyo (仰せられよ; → osshai), kudasareyo/kudasarei (下されよ・下されい), nasareyo (為されよ) were attested. From these nidan verbs, apart from the godan offshoots, there still exist ichidan equivalents. Some rural eastern dialects still have nasaro (為さろ).[589][590]
- Despite deriving from suru, the imperative form of -masu(ru) is not *-mashiro. However, there used to be -masei, with -i being the western reduced form of -yo.[638] -Mase yo exists, though not mandatorily like seyo, but only as -mase optionally followed by -yo. -Mashi is a later variant, characteristic of Shitamachi.[166] It used to be common during the Meiji era, but now has a connotation of unrefined speech.[167]
- -Masureba has been said to be uncommon. There was also the pseudo-classical -maseba which has been said to be nonstandard.
- Usually in the classical (western) construction -neba naran(u), the partially classical and partially modern (eastern) -neba naranai, both of which are quivalent to the fully modern -nakereba naranai.
- In some cases, there may be ambiguity. Compare yoku nai desu (よくないです; 'aren't good') and yoku arimasen (よくありません; 'aren't common; aren't good (?)').
References
Bibliography
External links
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