Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)

The Russo-Turkish War of 1686–1700 was part of the joint European effort to confront the Ottoman Empire. The larger European conflict was known as the Great Turkish War.

Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)
Part of Great Turkish War and series of Russo-Turkish wars
Capture of Azov by Russian emperor Peter the Great (on horseback)
Date 1686 – 13 July 1700 (14 years) Location Crimea, Azov Result Russian victory[1] Territorial changes Russia gains possession of Azov, fortress of Taganrog, Pavlovsk and Mius[2]
Belligerents
Tsardom of Russia Holy Roman Empire Poland–Lithuania Republic of Venice Cossack Hetmanate Zaporozhian Cossacks Don Cossacks	Ottoman Empire Crimean Khanate Cossack Hetmanate
Commanders and leaders
Sophia Alekseyevna of Russia Peter the Great Commanders Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn Francois Le Fort Alexander Gordon Aleksei Shein Boris Sheremetev Colonel G. Donetz A. I. Golenishev Kutuzov † Yu. Sherbatov † F.S. Kartsov † Pimenko Makhomov † L. F. Dolgorukov Avtonom Golovin Ivan Samoylovych Ivan Mazepa Petrik Ivanenko (before 1692) Ataman Frol Minaev Ataman Peter Kalmyk (POW) Yuriy Sviatopolk-Chetvertinsky (POW) Ataman Chaliy †	Mehmed IV Suleiman II Ahmed II Mustafa II Commanders Galil Pasha Ali Pasha of Azov Ali Pasha of Kerch Yusuf Pasha Magmet Pasha Ibrahim Pasha Abdurraman Pasha Bey of Kyzykermen  Bey of Azov † Janissaries Agha of Azov † Memet Derbish Pasha Selim I Giray Kubek Aga (WIA) (POW) Azamat Giray Shan Giray Kae Abilev Murza † Nuraddin Murza (WIA) Shegbaz Giray Sultan Petrik Ivanenko (after 1692) Seblevskiy (POW) Mikhaylenko (POW) Petrushkin (POW)
Casualties and losses
90,000+ dead 1687–1689: c. 60,000[3] 1695–1696: 30,000+[4]	Unknown

The Russo-Turkish War began after the Tsardom of Russia joined the European anti-Turkish coalition (Habsburg monarchy, Poland–Lithuania, Venice) in 1686, after Poland-Lithuania agreed to recognize Russian incorporation of Kiev and the left bank of Ukraine.^[5]

Prelude

Prelude to the war should be highlighted by examining the previous war. In 1676, the Russians captured Chyhyryn, thus eliminating Doroshenko. But soon they were forced to defend themselves against the Turks in 1677-1678, who conquered Chyhyryn. In 1689-1690, they strengthened the fortresses on the lower Dnieper, hindering the Cossacks while the Russian government could only watch.^[6]It's worth noting that the Turks disapproved of some clauses in the treaty, and after amending it, they firmly maintained that the clause regarding the Cossacks' free pursuits and the condition of preserving the lands conquered by the Turks had been transformed into an obligation on both sides not to build small towns. Russian authority in Zaporizhzhia was completely omitted, and the Russians were also required to pay a "treasury" to the Crimean Khan.^[7][8]

The Russians still tried to defend the right bank, but their efforts were futile. The Russians attempted to negotiate in 1682, but the Crimeans met them with hostility. Moreover, even after the peace treaty, the Tatars continued their raids. This issue required the Tsar's attention, as it undermined prestige and limited the strengthening of Russian influence in the southern direction.^[9]

Russo-Turkish relations in 1683-1686

Main article: Great Turkish War

Turks, with a huge army, marched on Vienna under Kara Mustafa Pasha, who besieged it and nearly took it, but was defeated by the Christian army for various reasons. The Holy League saw Russia as a welcome ally, so negotiations between the Poles and the Russians soon began.

In 1683-1684, the Russians sought a revision of the previous treaty, namely the articles that did not suit them, and they also wanted to strengthen their position in relation to the Crimeans, especially their raids, which were troubling the Russian borders.^[10] The negotiations failed because, while awaiting a response from Khan Selim, a rebellion was raised against him, and the Russian ambassador, Neplyuev, was unable to achieve anything. Russian diplomats continued to try to revise the treaty, but nothing was resolved. In 1686, the Russians signed an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and entered the war.

War

Cossack raids of 1686

In 1686, several clashes occurred. Cossacks attacked Temryuk, ravaging its surroundings, and soon laid siege to the Lyutik fortress. Unable to take the city, they retreated. The Turks blocked their path, and the Cossacks, unable to break through, split into detachments. Despite the defeat, the Cossacks soon set out on campaign again. They ravaged the environs of Azov and returned home unopposed. Soon, 600 Cossacks attacked Kyzykermen but were routed, losing 400 Cossacks and one Kalmyk in the battle. As a result of the battle, the Cossacks not only lost a significant number of troops, but also some of them surrendered to the Turks. This defeat was undoubtedly one of the worst for the Cossacks in recent memory, which affected their fighting ability. The defeat was so severe that the Koshevoy Ataman, during his calls for military action against the Turks and Tatars, declared that he did not have the strength for a war with Crimea.^[11]

First Crimean campaign (1687)

In 1687, the Crimeans attacked the Tor fortress, defeated the Cossacks, took 200 prisoners and wounded many more, and then withdrew.^[12] The Russians and Cossacks prepared for a campaign against Crimea, and on April 27, a large Russian-Cossack army set out. On June 3, the Don Cossacks and Dzungars arrived to join the Russians, and they also encountered Tatars, who were plundering and capturing Russians. The Cossacks routed the enemy and not only recaptured all their plunder but also captured 50 Crimeans, 400 horses, and sabers. According to reports, they also killed 500 Crimeans.^[13] On June 11, Russians and Zaporozhian Cossacks attacked Kızı-Kermen. Turkish Galil Pasha encountered them, and after a small naval battle, the Russian-Cossack forces emerged victorious, capturing 20 turkish men and five cannons.^[14]

On July 4, the Crimeans sent 6,000 men under Azamat Giray and Shan Giray against the enemy, and on July 5, they attacked and fought at Kamenny Zaton. The Tatars lost the battle and were forced to retreat, but the situation for the Russians and Cossacks was still precarious. On July 13, Russians sent Fyodor Yurasov with several hundred soldiers on a raid against Turkish fortresses, but it was unsuccessful. His arrival and the battle itself became a powerful catalyst for further discontent within the enemy ranks.^[15] On July 17, a battle took place at Kamenny Zaton, where Turks, Tatars, and Kalmyks attacked Ivan Samoylovych. The outcome of the fierce battle remained undecided: although the Tatars retreated, they had no intention of defeating the enemy. They achieved their goals; for example, because of this battle, they prevented Russian troops from marching along the Dnieper. However, the Crimeans were unable to sway the Cossacks. His arrival and the battle itself became a powerful catalyst for further discontent within the enemy ranks.^[16] The dire situation and widespread discontent among the Russian and Cossack armies soon forced them to begin a retreat. The campaign proved fatal for Ivan Samoilovich, leading to his overthrow. Ivan Mazepa was appointed new hetman. After the unsuccessful Russian campaign, the Crimeans carried out a series of devastating raids.^[17]

In Battle of Don river (1687) Turks with Crimeans and Nogai Tatars decisively defeated Cossack Ataman Peter Kalmyk, who was wounded and captured, after executed. Cossacks also lost 400 men and 40 ships.^[18]

While the Russians and Cossacks were trying to seize Crimea, the Holy League was crushing the Turks in Hungary, this time they defeated the Turks in the Battle of Mohács (1687), for which the military leader, Sarı Süleyman Pasha, was executed.

1688 campaign

Since the Crimean campaign had failed, the Russians went on the defensive. This year, the Tatars raided mostly in small detachments. On June 7, 1,500 Cossacks fought 4,000 Crimeans at Tumin Rog. After a fierce battle, the Kharkov Cossacks emerged victorious, losing 104 wounded. After the battle, they pursued the enemy briefly.^[19] In Balakliia, a Tatar raid by 2,500 elite Crimean and Nogai Tatars captured five city guards, 22 Cossacks, and killed one. They also carried out numerous raids on other settlements, such as Savintsy. Despite this, Colonel G. Donets routed a Tatar detachment near Andreyevka and inflicted heavy losses, capturing 50 men and even the wounded Kubek-aga. On September 3, together with the Turks, the Tatars and the Janissaries carried out a raid; the pursuit failed because the enemy had fled.^[20]

The Cossacks weren't idle; in late September and early November, they raided Ochakiv. During the raid, they routed a Tatar detachment near Berezan Island. After defeating the Turks, they drove them into the city. The Turks, Wallachians, and Tatars attacked, but the Cossacks were able to defeat them. Meanwhile, Turkish ships fired on the Cossacks, inflicting minor losses. Having learned from the captives that Kalga Aga and the Crimean Khan himself were coming towards them, the Cossack commanders were forced to retreat immediately. The Khan did not manage to catch up with the Cossacks, who quickly retreated.^[21]

Russians also intended to move against Perekop by gathering an army, but the campaign never took place.^[22]

Second Crimean campaign (1689)

Russians assembled an army and marched against Crimea for the second time, beginning on April 8. On May 13, the Russians sent a small detachment to the Islam-Kermen, but he hesitated to take the fortress. Major battles with the Tatars soon followed.^[23]

On May 15, the Russians defeated the Tatars and wounded several noble murzas. That day, Kae-Abilev was killed, and Nuraddin was wounded. The Turkish historian Silahdar Findyklyli Mehmed Aga notes that the Turkish commander of Azov, Shegbaz-Gerai Sultan, came to Selim I Giray with Kalmyks, Circassians, and Yaman Saadaks. During the fighting, the Tatars fought desperately in trenches and then in the open field.^[24] On the same day, May 15, the Tatars inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, the most significant being the loss of A.I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, a representative of the capital's nobility, as well as several other commanders, such as Yu. Shcherbatov, F.S. Kartsov, Pimenko Makhomov, and others. Tatars maneuvered and routed the Kazan detachment, and after a Russian counterattack, they were able to retreat.^[25] On May 16, the Russians continued their advance, but the Tatars put up fierce resistance, fighting all day. The Tatars captured a thousand Cossacks and thirty cannons, inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, and retreated. Although the Tatars lost, their battle actually benefited them. They had inflicted losses on the Russians, seized loot, and now the Russians had to find water.^[26] On May 17, heavy fighting broke out with the Tatars at Kalanchak, where the Tatars attempted to block the Russian advance.^[27] After this battle, the Russians continued to advance.

The Russians approached Perekop on May 20, but decided not to engage the Tatars. They entered into negotiations, which were unsuccessful. Thus, the Russians still had to return home in the terrible conditions into which the Crimeans had driven them. The Tatars tried to pursue the enemy, but an attack by a detachment of 200 men failed. Russian campaign ended in failure.

At this time Kosagov was sent to capture the Gorbatik fortress and arrived on May 18. Despite initial setbacks, the Turks and Tatars in the city attacked with such intensity that Kosagov, although he repelled the attack, decided to retreat after encountering fierce resistance. Both sides suffered heavy losses during the battle. Having failed to take the fortress, he also received news that the Russians were withdrawing. Moreover, the enemy also skillfully organized the pursuit, preventing the Cossacks from devastating the surrounding area.^[28]

After their victory over the Russians, the Tatars launched attacks on the Izyum Line, but not as intensely as in 1688. Several raids were repelled; for example, on June 16 at Olkhovets, the Tatars were routed during the pursuit.^[29]

At the same time, the Turks suffered further defeats against the Holy League in Hungary, like Batocina, Nis, Belgrade.They twice won poles at siege of Kamianets of 1688 and 1689.

Military actions of 1690-1694

Tatar raids

In June 1690, the Tatars attacked Izyum, devastating the city and its surroundings. In August of that year, a detachment from Azov arrived in Tor. Calling themselves Don Cossacks, they launched an attack and captured a thousand people. They were known for their exceptional cruelty. Seven men from the garrison managed to escape.In 1691, when the Tatars carried out raids, despite the fact that the detachments saw them, the Don Cossacks did not engage in battle with them, perhaps because they saw their superiority in numbers.^[30]

Throughout 1692, the Tatars launched further raids on Russian and Ukrainian lands. The only clash that year was the defense of Novobogoroditsk, during which the Russians managed to defeat the Crimeans and Petrik's Cossacks. They captured the former ataman Steblevsky, Kondrashka, Mikhailenko, Petrushkin, and others.^[31] In 1693, there were further raids by the Crimeans and Kalmyks, with only a couple of minor clashes. In 1694 the situation was similar, but clashes occurred more frequently.

Cossack raids

In 1690-1691, the Cossacks carried out several minor attacks on the Tatars. In 1692, the Cossacks launched an unsuccessful campaign against Temryuk and Kyzyltash. An attack on Azov failed. On July 5, the Cossacks managed to destroy three Turkish ships. On July 10, they attacked a Turkish vessel but failed to capture it. In the fall, the Cossacks launched another unsuccessful campaign against Azov. The Azovites inflicted damage with their raids on the enemy, but were soon defeated on October 26. In 1694, the Cossacks launched an unsuccessful campaign against Kyzyltash and Temryuk. They were pursued by the Turkish fleet, which they fought their way through and retreated. Soon, they attacked the towns again and clashed with the Tatars at the Milky Waters, where they escaped after a fierce battle.^[18] Cossacks raided Kyzykermen in 1690, as well as Ochakiv. In 1693, they repelled Tatar invasions. In 1694, the Cossacks twice defeated small Turkish detachments near Ochakiv.^[32]

Campaign of 1695

Dnieper campaign of 1695

Russians launched an offensive against the Turkish forts along the lower Dnieper River, aiming to capture Kyzykermen, the most important fortress in the region. At the beginning of the siege, the city had a garrison of 4,000 men, with Russians and Cossacks numbering 28,841. Fighting began on July 24. The Russians were able to take the city by July 30 by detonating mines on the fortifications, thus capturing the fortress. Thanks to the victory, the fortresses of Muberek-Kermen, Islam-Kermen and others capitulated without a fight. Russians also captured Bey of Kyzykermen Fortress.^[33]

Siege of Azov (1695)

Peter I the Great decided to capture the Azov fortress in 1695, as he needed a fortified and powerful base for his Black Sea campaigns. During the siege, the city's garrison numbered 6,000 Turks^[34], while the Russians counted 31,000 men with 60 cannons and 110 mortars.^[35] Russians laid siege to the city and initially achieved limited success against the Cossacks. Meanwhile, the Turks inflicted serious losses on Gordon's detachment, which they managed to repel with great difficulty, with the Russians losing 900 killed and wounded.^[36] The Turks continually tried to force the Russians to lift the siege. On August 5, the Russians launched an attack, killing the bey and the Janissary agha, but the Turks did not surrender and continued to fight and drove out the Russians, losing 200 men, while the attackers lost 1,500.^[37] After this failure, the Russians conducted siege works but achieved no success. The Russians launched a final attack on September 25, which failed. The Turks suffered catastrophic losses during the siege, and only 2,500 men remained. Thus, the Russians failed in Azov.

Campaign of 1696

Siege of Azov (1696)

Main article: Siege of Azov (1696)

Russians took revenge for their previous failure and captured Azov in 1696.

Dnieper front of 1696

In April, the Cossacks attacked and captured eight Turkish warships and one merchant ship. In June, Ivan Husak defeated a Tatar detachment in the Battle of Konskie Vody. Ataman Chaly raided Kozlov, sacked the town, and captured 62 people. But the Turks didn't let this go unnoticed; they, along with the Tatars, pursued them and caught them near the lower Dnieper, where they routed them. The ataman was killed, and 340 Cossacks were captured. On June 30, Yakov Moroz led a raid with 40 ships, attacking three Turkish merchant ships, capturing two. On their return, they encountered the Turks at the Dnieper, but managed to escape to the Sich. In the fall, a band of 80 Cossacks raided Temryuk, plundering a nearby village. But they were soon overtaken by Turks, Tatars, and Circassians led by Ali Pasha of Kerch, who routed the Cossacks, killed most of them, and captured the rest. In June, Mazepa sent 160 men on a raid. However, they were captured by the Crimean Khan's Tatars near the Molochnaya River. During the battle, 40 Cossacks were killed, and 110 surrendered.^[38]

Campaign of 1697

Don campaign

On July 20, the Russians repelled a small raid and captured 70 Tatars.

Defense of Tavan and Kyzykermen

The Tatars and Turks took part in raids and defeated small Cossack troops several times.^[39] That year, the Turks and Tatars attacked the Cossacks and Russians, capturing Islam-Kermen. Yusuf Pasha, the Seraskir of the Eyalet of Silistra, attacked the Dnieper towns, but the Cossacks and Russians repelled them. The Turks sent significant forces into the region. The Ottomans and Crimeans soon succeeded in taking Shingirey. Gazi Giray appeared at Kızıkermen on August 2 and attacked Colonel I. Obidovsky. They soon lured out the Cossacks and routed them, inflicting more than 200 casualties and capturing Prince Yuri Svyatopolk-Chetvertinsky. Yusuf Pasha launched a small attack and retreated with minor losses, testing the fortifications of Kızıkermen. On August 9, Mehmet Derbish Pasha's ships entered the Dnieper. No serious Turkish action was observed from August 21-26. Ali Pasha arrived on September 4 with Murtaza Pasha of Kaffa. From September 5th to 8th, the siege intensified significantly. On September 9th, the Turks failed to storm the city, and on September 14th, they destroyed the wall and launched an assault, but again failed. On September 28th, the Turks lifted the siege and retreated.^[40]

At the same time, the battle for Tavan was also underway. On September 22, the Zaporozhian Cossacks lost a naval battle to the Turks. But due to unsuccessful siege works and the arrival of reinforcements, as well as several unsuccessful attacks, the Turks were forced to retreat.^[41] Defeat of the Turks is explained by the fact that they took the Tatars with them as the main part of the army, but they were not effective in besieging fortresses, but rather had to act as defenders of the rear.^[42]

In the Dnieper region, only small mutual border raids were carried out by the Don Cossacks and Crimeans.^[43]

Raid of Temryuk

Cossacks raided Kiziltas and Temryuk in September, but it was unsuccessful and they comeback without any success.^[18]

Campaign of 1698

In 1698, on the Dnieper, where Kyzykermen was in a dilapidated state, work began to restore the city, since at any moment the Turks and Tatars could attack the fortress.^[44] On July 21, the Cossacks captured a Turkish ship with 14 Turks on board, learning that the Turks were preparing a huge expedition with Magmet, Ibrahim, and Abduraman Pashas. The force was large: 12 katorgas, 16 galetas, 17 furkats, 24 shkampafei, and 4 chaikas. The total number was 9,606, and Yusuf Pasha arrived in Ochakov with 12,000 sipahis and janissaries. They were to be assisted by 20,000 Crimean cavalry and some crimean infantry.^[45] Meanwhile, when the attack failed, the Russians and Cossacks attacked Perekop but were repelled. The Tatars and Turks attacked the supply train and fought for seven hours. The Russians soon lifted the siege of Perekop and began to retreat, planning to attack Ochakov, but the army hesitated and retreated.^[46]

Cossacks launched two small campaigns near Achuyev. During the first campaign, in the spring, they were discovered by the Turks and forced to retreat. During the second campaign, in the autumn, they captured one small ship, where is was 2 captured cossacks. After this, both sides limited themselves to raiding each other.^[47]

Peace treaty

In light of preparations for the war against the Swedish Empire, Russian Tsar Peter the Great signed the Treaty of Karlowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699.^[48] The subsequent Treaty of Constantinople in 1700, ceded Azov, the Taganrog fortress, Pavlovsk and Mius to Russia, freed Russia from tribute payments and established a Russian ambassador in Constantinople, and secured the return of all prisoners of war.^[2] The Tsar also affirmed that his subordinates, the Cossacks, would not attack the Ottomans, while the Sultan affirmed his subordinates, the Crimean Tatars, would not attack the Russians. Russia benefited from the peace treaty, but it did not correspond to the original plans, because until the summer of 1695 Peter the Great strongly hoped to take the Crimea, however the diplomatic collapse of the Holy League prevented this and the Russians limited themselves to the Azov region, which partially satisfied their demands.^[49]