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Bahasa Spanyol, juga disebut Kastilia, adalah Bahasa Roman yang berasal dari daerah Kastilia di Spanyol. Lebih dari 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Spanyol sebagai bahasa ibu, menjadikannya sebagai bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak dari Mandarin.[1] Diperkirakan ada 470 juta orang yang merupakan penutur asli bahasa Spanyol dan 548 juta orang yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.[2] Bahasa Spanyol merupakan bahasa ketiga dengan penutur terbanyak setelah Inggris dan Mandarin. [3][4][5][6] Bahasa Spanyol adalah satu dari bahasa resmi PBB dan juga Uni Eropa, Organisasi Negara-Negara Amerika, Persatuan Negara-Negara Amerika Selatan, dan banyak lagi.
Bahasa Spanyol adalah bagian dari bahasa Ibero-Roman, yang berevolusi dari beberapa dialek Latin Umum di Semenanjung Iberia setelah keruntuhan dari Kekaisaran Romawi Barat pada abad ke-5. Bahasa ini pertama kali diucapkan di Iberia utara pada abad ke-9 dan perlahan meluas dengan perluasan Kerajaan Kastilia ke Iberia pusat dan selatan.[7] Pada awal abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke koloni Kekaisaran Spanyol, yang di antaranya adalah Amerika Selatan dan Afrika, Oseania, dan Filipina.[8]
Semenjak awalnya, kosakata bahasa Spanyol dipengaruhi oleh hubungannya dengan bahasa Basque, begitu pun dengan bahasa Ibero-Roman yang lain, dan selanjutnya menyerap banyak kata bahasa Arab saat kepemilikan Islam atas Iberia.[9]. Ia juga menyerap kata dari bahasa bukan Iberia, utamanya dari Oksitan, Prancis, Italia, dan Sardinia, begitu pun dari bahasa Nahuatl dan bahasa-bahasa natif Amerika. Pada masa modern, ia melanjutkan menambahkan kata-kata baru, dan semakin banyak menyerap dari bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari 19 negara di Amerika. Di Uni Eropa, bahasa ini digunakan sebagai bahasa ibu dari 8% warganya, dengan tambahan 7% yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.[10] Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa kedua terpopuler yang dipelajari di Amerika Serikat.[11]
Di Spanyol dan negara-negara berbahasa Spanyol, bahasa ini disebut castellano (Kastilia) maupun español (Spanyol). Kata castellano merujuk pada region Kastilia (Castilla) di Spanyol, tempat bahasa ini berasal, dan kontras dengan bahasa-bahasa lain yang digunakan di Spanyol, seperti Galisia, Basque, dan Katala.
Konstitusi Spanyol 1978 menggunakan kata castellano untuk menyebut bahasa resmi dari seluruh negara Spanyol, kontras dengan las demás lenguas españolas (bhs. bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain). Pasal III berbunyi:
El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas...
(Bahasa) Kastilia adalah bahasa Spanyol resmi dari Negara. ... Bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain juga akan menjadi resmi di Komunitas Otonom mereka sendiri...
Akademi Resmi Spanyol, di samping itu, kini menggunakan kata español dalam terbitannya, tapi semenjak 1713 sampai 1923 menggunakan kata castellano.
Diccionatio panhispánico de dudas (sebuah pengantar bahasa yang diterbitankan oleh Akademi Resmi Spanyol) menyatakan bahwa meskipun Akademi Resmi Spanyol memilih menggunakan kata español dalam terbitannya saat merujuk ke bahasa Spanyol, kedua kata, español dan castellano, dipandang sama dan valid.[12]
Dua etimologi untuk español telah disarankan. Kamus Akademi Resmi Spanyol mengasalkan kata tersebut dari kata Provençal espaignol, dan lebih jauh dari kata bahasa Latin Hispaniolus, 'sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan Hispania'.[13] Otoritas lain[14][15] mengarahkannya pada kata bahasa Latin *hispaniōne, dengan arti yang sama.
Bahasa Spanyol berevolusi dari bahasa Latin Umum, yang dibawa ke Semenanjung Iberia oleh para Romawi saat Perang Punisia Kedua, mulai pada 210 SM. Sebelumnya, beberapa bahasa sebelum Romawi (juga disebut bahasa-bahasa Paleohispani)—tidak terkait ke bahasa Latin, dan beberapa di antara mereka bahkan tidak terkait ke Indo-Eropa—digunakan di Semenanjung Iberia. Bahasa-bahasa ini termasuk Basque (kini masih dipakai), Iberia, Keltiberia, dan Kelt. Sisa-sisa bahasa Basque bisa ditemukan di kosakata bahasa Spanyol kini, utamanya di nama tempat.
Dokumen-dokumen pertama yang diketahui berisi bentuk yang kini dikenal sebagai bentuk mentah bahasa Spanyol berasal dari abad ke-9. Selama Abad Pertengahan sampai masa modern, pengaruh paling penting dalam tata bahasa Spanyol berasal dari bahasa Roman di sekelilingnya saat itu—Navarro-Aragon, Llion, Aragon, Basque, Katala, Portugis, Galisia, Miranda, Oksitan, Gaskon, dan selanjutnya, bahasa Prancis dan bahasa Italia—tapi juga dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Arab dan bahasa Jermanik. Banyak kata yang diserap dari bahasa Latin Klasik melalui bahasa tertulis dan bahasa liturgi Gereja.
Dialek lokal dari bahasa Latin Umum berevolusi menjadi bahasa Spanyol di Iberia bagian utara, di daerah Álava, Cantabria, Burgos, Soria, dan La Rioja. Dialek ini selanjutnya dibawa ke kota Toledo, di mana bahasa standar tertulisnya pertama kali diciptakan pada abad ke-13.[16] Dalam tahapan ini, bahasa Spanyol (saat itu masih dianggap bahasa Kastilia) mulai membedakan diri dari saudara dekatnya, bahasa Llion, dan, menurut beberapa pendapat, dibedakan dari pengaruh bahasa Basque yang besar. Dialek yang berbeda ini meluas perlahan ke selatan dengan adanya Reconquista, dan mendapatkan cukup banyak pengaruh tata bahasa dari bahasa Arab dari Al-Andalus, meski tidak secara langsung, melainkan dari dialek Mozarabik (sekitar 4.000 kata dari bahasa Arab (8%) ada dalam bahasa ini kini).[17] Standar tertulis bahasa baru ini mulai diciptakan di kota Toledo, di abad ke-13 sampai 16, dan Madrid sejak 1570. [16]
Perkembangan fonologi bahasa Spanyol dari bahasa Latin Umum berisi banyak perubahan yang sama dari bahasa Roman Barat, termasuk pelemahan (lenisi) dari huruf mati intervokalis (menghasilkan Spanyol vida dari Latin vīta). Diftongisasi dari huruf pendek ditekan e dan o—yang terjadi pada suku kata terbuka di bahasa Prancis dan Italia, tapi tidak sama sekali di bahasa Katala maupun Portugis—ditemukan di baik suku kata terbuka dan tertutup di bahasa Spanyol, seperti di tabel berikut:
Bahasa Latin | Bahasa Spanyol | Bahasa Ladino | Bahasa Aragon | Bahasa Asturia | Bahasa Galisia | Bahasa Portugis | Bahasa Katala | Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan | Bahasa Prancis | Bahasa Sardinia | Bahasa Italia | Bahasa Romania | Bahasa Indonesia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
petra | piedra | piedra (or pyedra) | piedra | piedra | pedra | pedra | pedra | pedra/pèira | pierre | perda | pietra | piatrǎ | 'batu' |
terra | tierra | tierra (or tyerra) | tierra | tierra | terra | terra | terra | tèrra | terre | terra | terra | țară | 'tanah' |
moritur | muere | muere | muere | muerre | morre | morre | mor | morís | meurt | mòrit | muore | moare | 'mati' (kata kerja.) |
mortem | muerte | muerte | muerte | muerte | morte | morte | mort | mòrt | mort | mòrti | morte | moarte | 'kematian' |
Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai palatalisasi dari huruf mati ganda bahasa Latin nn dan ll (menghasilkan año dari annum dan anillo dari anellum).
Huruf mati yang ditulis dengan u atau v di bahasa Latin yang diucapkan [w] mungkin telah mengalami "fortifikasi" ke frikatif bilabial /β/ di bahasa Latin Umum. Di bahasa Spanyol awal (tapi tidak di bahasa Katala dan Portugis), ia tercampur dengan huruf mati b (bilabial dengan alofon plosif dan frikatif). Di bahasa Spanyol modern, tidak ada perbedaan dengan pengucapan huruf b dan v, dengan pengecualian beberapa dialek bahasa Spanyol.
Dan juga pada bahasa Spanyol (begitu pun dengan dialek Gaskon dari bahasa Oksitan) ada perubahan dari huruf f- di depan kata bahasa Latin menjadi h-, ketika diikuti oleh huruf hidup yang tidak mengalami diftongisasi. Pengucapan h- tersebut, yang masih ada dalam ejaan, kini tak diucapkan di banyak versi bahasa ini, meski di beberapa dialek Andalusia dan Karibia masih diucapkan di beberapa kata. Itulah alasan kenapa ada dua variasi ejaan modern. Fernando dan Hernando (keduanya berarti Ferdinan), ferrero dan herrero (pandai besi), fierro dan hierro (besi), dan fondo dan hondo (dalam, tapi fondo berarti bawah dan hondo berarti dalam); hacer (melakukan) adalah akar dari satisfacer (memuaskan), dan hecho (dilakukan) adalah akar dari satisfecho (dipuaskan).
Bandingkan contoh berikut:
Bahasa Latin | Bahasa Spanyol | Bahasa Ladino | Bahasa Aragon | Bahasa Asturia | Bahasa Galisia | Bahasa Portugis | Bahasa Katala | Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan | Bahasa Prancis | Bahasa Sardinia | Bahasa Italia | Bahasa Romania | Bahasa Indonesia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
filium | hijo | fijo (or ijo) | fillo | fíu | fillo | filho | fill | filh/hilh | fils | fillu | figlio | fiu | 'anak laki-laki' |
facere | hacer | fazer | fer | facer | facer | fazer | fer | far/faire/har (or hèr) | faire | fairi | fare | a face | 'melakukan' |
febrem | fiebre | fiebre | fiebre | fiebre | febre | febre | febre | fèbre/frèbe/hrèbe (or herèbe) | fièvre | (calentura) | febbre | febră | 'demam' |
focum | fuego | fuego | fuego | fueu | fogo | fogo | foc | fuòc/fòc/huèc | feu | fogu | fuoco | foc | 'api' |
Beberapa gugus huruf mati bahasa Latin juga menghasilkan hasil berbeda di bahasa-bahasa tersebut, seperti ditampilkan dalam tabel berikut:
Bahasa Latin | Bahasa Spanyol | Bahasa Ladino | Bahasa Aragon | Bahasa Asturia | Bahasa Galisia | Bahasa Portugis | Bahasa Katala | Bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan | Bahasa Prancis | Bahasa Sardinia | Bahasa Italia | Bahasa Romania | Bahasa Indonesia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
clāvem | llave | clave | clau | llave | chave | chave/clave | clau | clau | clé | crai | chiave | cheie | 'kunci' |
flamma | llama | flama | flama | flama | chama | chama/flama | flama | flama | flamme | framma | fiamma | flamă | 'kobaran api' |
plēnum | lleno | pleno | plen | llenu | cheo | cheio/pleno | ple | plen | plein | prenu | pieno | plin | 'banyak, penuh' |
octō | ocho | ocho | güeito | ocho/oito | oito | oito | vuit/huit | uèch/uòch/uèit | huit | otu | otto | opt | 'delapan' |
multum | mucho muy | muncho muy | muito mui | munchu mui | moito moi | muito mui (arch.) | molt | molt (arch.) | moult (arch.) | (meda) | molto | mult | 'sangat, banyak' |
Pada abad ke-15 dan 16, bahasa Spanyol melalui perubahan besar dalam pengucapan huruf mati sibilannya, dikenal dengan reajuste de las sibilantes, yang menghasilkan velar [x] (seperti khusus) untuk huruf ⟨j⟩ dan—di banyak daerah di Spanyol—interdental [θ] (seperti tsanawiyah) untuk huruf ⟨z⟩, dan ⟨c⟩ sebelum ⟨e⟩ atau ⟨i⟩.
Gramática de la lengua castellana yang ditulis oleh Salamanca pada 1492 oleh Antonio de Nebrija adalah tata bahasa pertama yang ditulis untuk sebuah bahasa Eropa Modern.[19] Menurut sebuah anekdot yang populer, saat Antonio memberikannya pada Ratu Isabela I, ia menanyakannya apa kegunaan hasil itu, dan dia menjawab bahwa bahasa adalah instrumen dari sebuah kerajaan.[20] Dalam pengenalannya ke tata bahasa tersebut, pada 18 Agustus 1492, Antonio menulis bahwa "...bahasa selalu merupakan pendamping kerajaan.".[21]
Semenjak abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke Amerika dan Hindia Spanyol melalui Kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika. Pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini dibawa ke Sahara Barat dan Guinea Khatulistiwa dan ke daerah di Amerika Serikat yang tak pernah menjadi bagian Kerajaan Spanyol, seperti Spanish Harlem di New York.
Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa yang terinfleksi, dengan sistem jenis kelamin kata ganda dan sekitar 50 bentuk terkonjugasi dari kata kerja, tapi dengan infleksi dari kata benda, kata sifat, dan penentu (kebahasaan) yang terbatas pada jumlah dan jenis kelamin. (Lihat kata kerja bahasa Spanyol) Sintaks bahasa Spanyol bersistem pembatangan kanan, berarti bahwa sub-kata atau pemodifikasi biasa diletakkan setelah kata utama (seperti burung biru; burung = kata utama, biru = pemodifikasi). Bahasa ini menggunakan kata depan (daripada kata belakang atau infleksi kata benda untuk kasus), dan biasanya—meski tidak selalu—meletakkan kata sifat setelah kata benda, begitu pun rata-rata bahasa Roman yang lain.
Struktur kalimatnya biasanya subyek—kata benda—obyek, meski variasi pun sering. Ia adalah bahasa pro-drop atau subyek kosong—yang mengizinkan penghapusan subyek saat mereka secara pragmatis tidak dibutuhkan. Bahasa ini merupakan bahasa kata kerja terbingkai, berarti arah dari kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja sementara mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja langsung (bentuk –ing dalam bahasa Inggris) (contoh subir corriendo atau salir volando; penerjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia—'berlari naik' dan 'terbang keluar'—menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa "satelit terbingkai", dengan mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja dan arah kegiatan dalam kata kerja langsung/kata sifat).
Pembalikan subyek/kata kerja tidak dibutuhkan dalam pertanyaan. Oleh karena itu, perintah atau pertanyaan bisa tergantung pada penekanan.
Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai 5 suara huruf hidup (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/), dan 17 sampai 19 suara huruf mati (jumlah tepat tergantung dialek). Variasi alofon utama di antara huruf hidup adalah pengurangan huruf hidup tinggi /i/ dan /u/ menjadi /j/ dan /w/ saat tidak ditekan dan diikuti huruf hidup yang lain. Beberapa instansi dari huruf hidup tengah /e/ dan /o/, secara leksikal ditentukan, tertukar dengan diftong /je/ dan /we/ saat ditekan, dalam proses yang lebih bagus dideskripsikan sebagai morfofonemik daripada fonologikal, karena ia tidak bisa diramalkan hanya dari fonologi.
Sistem huruf mati bahasa Spanyol berciri: (1) tiga fonem hidung (nasal), dan satu atau dua (tergantung dialek) fonem lateral, yang pada posisi suku kata akhir kehilangan kontras dan tunduk pada asimilasi dengan mengikuti konsonan; (2) tiga plosif nirsuara dan afrikat /tʃ/; (3) tiga atau empat (tergantung dialek) frikatif nirsuara; (4) satu set fonem hambat bersuara—/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, dan terkadang /ʝ/—yang bergantian antara alofon afroksiman dan plosif tengantung keadaan; dan (5) perbedaan antara suara "r" yang ditap dan digetarkan (ditulis ⟨r⟩ (ditap) dan ⟨rr⟩ (digetarkan) dalam ortografi)
Dalam tabel fonem konsonan berikut, /θ/ dan /ʎ/ ditandai dengan tanda bintang (*) untuk menunjukkan bahwa mereka hanya dipakai dalam beberapa dialek. Dalam kebanyakan dialek, mereka telah bergabung, masing-masing, dengan /s/ dan /ʝ/, disebut seseo dan yeísmo. Fonem /ʃ/ ada dalam tanda kurung () untuk menunjukkan bahwa ia hanya muncul dalam kata-kata pinjaman. Setiap fonem hambat bersuara /b/, /d/, /ʝ/, dan /ɡ/ muncul di sebelah kanan dari sepasang fonem nirsuara, untuk menunjukkan bahwa, saat fonem nirsuara mempertahankan kontras fonemik antara plosif (atau afrikat) dan frikatif, yang bersuara alternatif secara alofon (yaitu tanpa kontras fonemik) antara plosif dan pengucapan afroksiman.
Huruf ⟨v⟩ dan ⟨b⟩ biasanya mewakili fonem yang sama, /b/, yang diucapkan sebagai [b] setelah konsonan sengau atau jeda, dan sebagai [β] di tempat lain, seperti di ambos [ambos] ('keduanya'), envío [embi.o] ('aku mengirim'), acabar [akaβaɾ] ('menyelesaikan') dan mover [moβeɾ] ('bergerak'). Akademi Resmi Spanyol menganggap pengucapan /v/ dari huruf ⟨v⟩ adalah salah dan terpengaruh. Namun, beberapa penutur bahasa Spanyol mempertahankan pengucapan /v/ suara seperti di bahasa-bahasa Eropa barat lainnya. Suara /v/ yang digunakan digunakan untuk huruf ⟨v⟩, dalam bahasa Spanyol, dengan beberapa penutur bahasa kedua di Spanyol yang bahasa ibunya adalah bahasa Katala, di Kepulauan Balearic, di Komunitas Valencia, dan di Katalunya selatan.[23] Di Amerika Serikat juga umum karena kedekatan dan pengaruh fonologi bahasa Inggris, dan /v/ juga kadang-kadang digunakan di Meksiko. Beberapa bagian dari Amerika Tengah juga menggunakan /v/, yang dianggak Akademi adalah pengaruh bahasa lokal setempat.
Dahulu, pengucapan /v/ tidaklah umum, tapi dianggap benar sampai abad ke-20.
Bahasa Spanyol diklasifikasikan oleh iramanya sebagai bahasa berwaktu suku, yang berarti bahwa setiap suku kata memiliki sekitar durasi yang sama meski ada dari tekanan.[24][25]
Intonasi bahasa Spanyol sangat bervariasi sesuai dengan dialek, tetapi umumnya sesuai dengan pola jatuh nada kalimat deklaratif dan pertanyaan (siapa, apa, mengapa, dan lain-lain), dan meningkatnya nada untuk pertanyaan ya/tidak.[26][27] Tidak ada tanda-tanda sintaksis untuk membedakan antara pertanyaan dan pernyataan, dan dengan demikian pengakuan deklaratif atau interogatif sepenuhnya tergantung pada intonasi.
Tekanan paling sering terjadi pada salah satu dari tiga suku kata terakhir dari kata, dengan beberapa pengecualian langka di suku kata keempat terakhir atau sebelumnya. Kecenderungan peletakan tekanan adalah sebagai berikut:[28]
Selain banyak pengecualian terhadap kecenderungan ini, ada banyak pasangan minimal yang berbeda hanya pada tekanan seperti sábana ('lembar') dan sabana ('sabana'), serta límite ('batas'), limite ('[yang] dia batasi ') dan limité ('aku membatasi' (lampau sempurna)), atau juga líquido ('cairan'), liquido ('aku menjual'), dan liquidó ('ia menjual' (lampau sempurna)).
Sistem ejaan ini jelas mencerminkan di mana tekanan terjadi: dengan tidak adanya tanda aksen, tekanan jatuh pada suku kata terakhir kecuali huruf terakhir adalah ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, atau huruf hidup, di kasus tekanan jatuh pada suku kata kedua terakhir; jika dan hanya jika tidak adanya tanda aksen akan memberikan informasi tekanan yang salah, tanda aksen akut muncul di atas suku kata yang ditekan.
Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa utama dari 20 negara. Diperkirakan jumlah keseluruhan dari penutur bahasa Spanyol adalah antara 470 dan 500 juta orang, menjadikannya bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak.[30][31]
Bahasa ini adalah bahasa terbesar ketiga dengan jumlah penutur keseluruhan (setelah bahasa Mandarin dan Inggris). Statistik penggunaan internet untuk tahun 2007 menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa ketiga yang paling sering digunakan di internet, setelah bahasa Inggris dan Mandarin.[32]
Di Eropa, bahasa Spanyol adalah bahas resmi dari Spanyol, negara dari mana ia dinamai dan berasal. Bahasa ini dituturkan luas di Gibraltar, meskipun bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa resmi.[33] Ia juga biasa dituturkan di Andorra, meski bahasa Katala adalah bahasa resminya.[34]
Bahasa ini juga dituturkan oleh perkumpulan kecil di negara-negara Eropa lain, seperti Britania Raya, Prancis, dan Jerman.[35] bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari Uni Eropa. Di Swiss, yang mempunyai gelombang migrasi Spanyol yang besar pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini adalah bahasa ibu dari 2,2% warganya.[36]
Banyak penutur bahasa Spanyol ada di Amerika Latin; dari semua negara dengan mayoritas penutur bahasa Spanyol, hanya Spanyol dan Guinea Khatulistiwa yang ada di luar Amerika. Secara nasional, bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi—antara de facto atau de jure—dari Argentina, Bolivia (bersama Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, dan 34 bahasa lain), Chili, Kolombia, Kosta Rika, Kuba, Republik Dominika, Ekuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Meksico, Nikaragua, Panama, Paraguay (bersama Guarani),[37] Peru (bersama Quechua, Aymara, dan "bahasa-bahasa lokal lain"[38]), Uruguay, dan Venezuela. Bahasa Spanyol bersama bahasa Inggris menjadi bahas resmi dari Puerto Riko.[39]
Bahasa Spanyol tidak mempunyai status resmi di koloni Britania, Belize; namun, per sensus 2000, ia dituturkan oleh 43% warganya.[40][41] Utamanya, ia dituturkan oleh keturunan Latin yang telah ada di sana sejak abad ke-17; meski bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa resminya.[42]
Karena kedekatan jarak mereka pada negara berbahasa Spanyol, Trinidad dan Tobago dan Brazil telah memasukkan bahasa Spanyol ke dalam sistem pendidikan mereka. Pemerintah Trinidad meluncurkan Bahasa Spanyol sebagai Bahasa Asing Pertama (Spanish as a First Foreign Language - SAFFL) pada Maret 2005.[43] Pada 2005, Kongres Nasional Brazil menyetujui hukum oleh Presiden untuk sekolah-sekolah untuk menawarkan bahasa Spanyol sebagai les bahasa asing alternatif baik di sekolah umum dan pribadi di Brazil. ref>"Brazilian Law 11.161". Presidência da República. 2005-08-05. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-31.</ref> Di banyak desa dan kota di perbatasan (utamanya di Brazil – Uruguay dan Brazil – Paraguay), ada bahasa campuran yang dikenal dengan Portuñol.[44]
Menurut data sensus 2006, 44,3 juta orang Amerika Serikat adalah keturunan orang Latin atau Amerika Latin;[45] 38,3 juta orang atau 13% dari warga di atas 5 tahun menggunakan bahasa Spanyol di rumah.[46] Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai sejarah dan kehadiran yang panjang di Amerika Serikan karena administrasi Spanyol dan selanjutnya, Meksiko di daerah yang kini adalah negara-negara bagian barat laut, pun Florida, yang merupakan teritori Spanyol sampai 1821.
Bahasa Spanyol kini adalah bahasa kedua paling umum dituturkan dan dipelajari di negara tersebut, dan dengan lebih dari 50 juta penutur keseluruhan, kini Amerika Serikat adalah negara berbahasa Spanyol terbesar kedua di dunia setelah Meksiko.[47] Meski bahasa Inggris secara de facto adalah bahasa resmi negara, bahasa Spanyol sering dipakai di layanan umum dan pemberitahuan di tingkat federal dan negara bagian. Bahasa Spanyol juga dipakai dalam administrasi di negara bagian Meksiko Baru.[48] Ia juga memiliki pengaruh besar di daerah metropolitan utama seperti Los Angles (yang namanya pun berbahasa Spanyol), Miami, San Antonio, New York, San Fransisco, Dallas, dan Phoenix; dan baru-baru ini, Chicago, Las Vegas, Boston, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Kota Salt Lake, Atalanta, Nashville, Orlando, Tampa, Raleigh, dan Washington, D.C. karena imigrasi abad 20 dan 21.
In Africa, Spanish is official (along with Portuguese and French) in Equatorial Guinea, as well as an official language of the African Union. In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of native speakers.[49][50] However, Equatorial Guinea has historically had closer and longer ties with Portugal.
Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in North Africa, which include the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the Plazas de soberanía, and the Canary Islands, archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa. But Ceuta and Melilla are integral territories of Spain, not Africa.
Within Northern Morocco, a former Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spain, approximately 20,000 people speak Spanish as a second language, while Arabic is the de jure official language. A small number of Moroccan Jews also speak the Sephardic Spanish dialect Haketia (related to the Ladino dialect spoken in Israel). Spanish is spoken by some small communities in Angola because of the Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned in time for their country's independence.[51]
In Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, Spanish was officially spoken during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Today, Spanish in this disputed territory is maintained by populations of Sahrawi nomads numbering about 500,000 people, and is de facto official alongside Arabic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, although this entity receives limited international recognition.[52][53]
Spanish is present on Easter Island, as it was annexed as a Chilean province in 1888.
Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization (1565–1898), it was the language of government, trade and education, and spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos. In the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government set up a free public education system with Spanish as the medium of instruction. This increased use of Spanish throughout the islands led to the formation of a class of Spanish-speaking intellectuals called the Ilustrados. However, Spanish was never spoken by the majority of the population.[54]
Despite American administration after the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War in 1898, the usage of Spanish continued in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American rule. Gradually, however, the American government began increasingly promoting the use of English, and it characterized Spanish as a negative influence of the past. Eventually, by the 1920s, English became the primary language of administration and education.[55] But despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines when it became independent in 1946, alongside English and Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog.
Spanish was removed from official status in 1973 under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, but regained its status as an official language two months later under Presidential Decree No. 155, dated 15 March 1973.[56] It remained an official language until 1987, with the ratification of the present constitution, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.[57] In 2010, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo encouraged the reintroduction of Spanish-language teaching in the Philippine education system.[58] But by 2012, the number of secondary schools at which the language was either a compulsory subject or an elective had become very limited.[59] Today, despite government promotions of Spanish, less than 0.5% of the population report being able to speak the language proficiently.[60] Estimates indicate that while around 3 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439 thousand people can speak the language at a native level.[61] Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language—Chavacano—developed in the southern Philippines. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.[62] Speakers of the Zamboangueño variety of Chavacano were numbered about 360,000 in the 2000 census.[63] The local languages of the Philippines also retain some Spanish influence, with many words being derived from Mexican Spanish, owing to the control of the islands by Spain through Mexico City until 1821, and then directly from Madrid until 1898.[64][65]
Spanish was also used by the colonial governments and educated classes in the former Spanish East Indies, consisting of modern-day Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and Micronesia, in addition to the Philippines. Spanish loan words are present in the local languages of these territories as a legacy of colonial rule.[66][67] Today, Spanish is not spoken officially in any of these former Spanish territories.
The following table shows the number of Spanish speakers in some 79 countries.
Country | Population[68] | Spanish as a native language speakers[69][70][71][72][73] | Native speakers or very good speakers as a second language[74] | Total number of Spanish speakers (including second language speakers)[74][75][76] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mexico | 121,005,815[77] | 112.172.391 (92.7%)[78] | 119.190.728 (98.5%)[76] | |
United States | 318,881,992[79] | 38,417,235[80] (13%)[81] | 41,343,921[2] (82%[82] of the 54.1 mill. Hispanics[83] + 2.8 mill. non Hispanics[84]) | 52,000,000[2] (including 7.8 million students[2] and some of the 9 million illegal Hispanics not accounted by the Census[85])[86][87][88][89][90][91] |
Colombia | 48,014,000[92] | 47.505.624[93] | 47.629.888 (99.2%)[76] | |
Spain | 46,771,341[94] | 38.352.500[95] | 46.210.085 (98.8%)[76] | |
Argentina | 43,131,966 [96][97] | 39,500,000[98] | 42.873.174 (99.4%)[76] | |
Venezuela | 30,620,404[99] | 29.522.160[100] | 30.252.959 (98.8%)[76] | |
Peru | 31,151,643[101] | 26.198.532 (84.1%)[102][103] | 26.977.323 (86.6%)[76] | |
Chile | 18,006,407[104] | 17,724,807[105] | 17.880.362 (99.3%)[76] | |
Ecuador | 15,580,000[106] | 13,200,000[107] | 15.499.800 (98.1%)[76] | |
Guatemala | 15,806,675[68] | 9.484.005[108] | 13.656.967 (86.4%)[76] | |
Brazil | 201,032,714[109] | 460,018[110] | 460,018[110] | 12,460,018[110][111][112] |
Cuba | 11,266,000[68] | 11,266,000[113] | 11.198.404 (99.4%)[76] | |
Dominican Republic | 10,404,000[68] | 9,300,000[114] | 10.362.384 (99.6%)[76] | |
Bolivia | 10,426,154[115] | 6.047.169 (58%)[116] | 9.164.589 (87.9%)[76] | |
Honduras | 8,215,313[117] | 8,007,563[118] | 8.133.160 (99.0%)[76] | |
France | 65,635,000[119] | 477,564 (1%[120] of 47,756,439[121]) | 1,910,258 (4%[122] of 47,756,439[121]) | 6,685,901 (14%[123] of 47,756,439[121]) |
El Salvador | 6,183,002[124] | 6,168,902[125] | 6.164.453 (99.7%)[76] | |
Nicaragua | 6,042,000[68] | 5,551,876[126] | 5.860.740 (97.0%)[76] | |
Italy | 59,685,227[127] | 1,037,248 (2%[122] of 51,862,391[121]) | 5,704,863 (11%[123] of 51,862,391[121]) | |
Paraguay | 6,802,000[68] | 3,877,140 (57%)[128] | 4.727.390 (69.5%)[76] | |
Costa Rica | 4,667,096[129] | 4,581,678[130] | 4.629.759 (99.2%)[76] | |
Puerto Rico | 3,667,084[131] | 3.487.397 (95.1%)[132] | 3.623.079 (98.8%)[76] | |
Panama | 3,864,000[133] | 3,362,957[134] | 3.597.384 (93.1%)[76] | |
Morocco | 31,759,997[135] | 6,586[110] | 6,586 | 3,415,000[110][136] (21.9%)[137] |
United Kingdom | 63,181,775[138] | 120,000 | 518,480 (1%[122] of 51,848,010[121]) | 3,110,880 (6%[123] of 51,848,010[121]) |
Uruguay | 3,286,314[139] | 3,136,114[140] | 3.250.165 (98.9%)[76] | |
Philippines | 97,866,000[141] | 3,325[142] | 438,882[143] | 3,016,773[144][145][146][147][148][149][150] |
Germany | 80,327,900[151] | 644,091 (1%[122] of 64,409,146[121]) | 2,576,366 (4%[123] of 64,409,146[121]) | |
Equatorial Guinea | 1,622,000[152] | 1,683[153] | 918,000[76] (90.5%)[76][154] | |
Canada | 34,605,346[155] | 439,000[156] | 909,000[110][157] | 1,001,853[110] |
Romania | 21,355,849[158] | 182,467 (1%[122] of 18,246,731[121]) | 912,337 (5%[123] of 18,246,731[121]) | |
Portugal | 10,636,888[159] | 323,237 (4%[122] of 8,080,915[121]) | 808,091 (10%[123] of 8,080,915[121]) | |
Netherlands | 16,665,900[160] | 133,719 (1%[122] of 13,371,980[121]) | 668,599 (5%[123] of 13,371,980[121] ) | |
Sweden | 9,555,893[161] | 77,912 (1%[120] of 7,791,240[121]) | 77,912 (1% of 7,791,240) | 467,474 (6%[123] of 7,791,240[121]) |
Australia | 21,507,717[162] | 111,400[163] | 111,400 | 447,175[164] |
Belgium | 10,918,405[165] | 89,395 (1%[122] of 8,939,546[121]) | 446,977 (5%[123] of 8,939,546[121]) | |
Poland | 38,092,000 | 324,137 (1%[122] of 32,413,735[121]) | 324,137 (1% of 32,413,735) | |
Austria | 8,205,533 | 70,098 (1%[122] of 7,009,827[121]) | 280,393 (4%[123] of 7,009,827[121]) | |
Ivory Coast | 20,179,602 | 235,806 (students)[75] | ||
Algeria | 33,769,669 | 223,422[110] | ||
Belize | 333,200[166] | 173,597[110] | 173,597[110] | 195,597[110] (62.8%)[167] |
Denmark | 5,484,723 | 45,613 (1%[122] of 4,561,264[121]) | 182,450 (4%[123] of 4,561,264[121]) | |
Israel | 7,112,359 | 130,000[110] | 175,231[168] | |
Japan | 127,288,419 | 167,514[75] | ||
Ireland | 4,581,269[169] | 35,220 (1%[122] of 3,522,000[121]) | 140,880 (4%[123] of 3,522,000[121]) | |
Switzerland | 7,581,520 | 86,000[110] (1.7%)[170] | 111,000[110] | 111,000[110] |
Finland | 5,244,749 | 133,200 (3%[123] of 4,440,004[121]) | ||
Bulgaria | 7,262,675 | 130,750 (2%[122] of 6,537,510[121]) | 130,750 (2%[123] of 6,537,510[121]) | |
Netherlands Antilles | 223,652 | 10,699[110] | 10,699[110] | 125,534[110] |
Senegal | 12,853,259 | 101,455[75] | ||
Czech Republic | 10,513,209[171] | 90,124 (1%[123] of 9,012,443[121]) | ||
Hungary | 9,957,731[172] | 83,206 (1%[123] of 8,320,614[121]) | ||
Aruba | 101,484[173] | 6,800[110] | 6,800[110] | 75,402[110] |
Trinidad and Tobago | 1,317,714[174] | 4,100[110] | 4,100[110] | 65,886[110] (5%)[175] |
Cameroon | 21,599,100[176] | 63,560 (students)[75] | ||
Andorra | 84,484 | 33,305[110] | 33,305[110] | 54,909[110] |
Slovenia | 35,194 (2%[122] of 1,759,701[121]) | 52,791 (3%[123] of 1,759,701[121]) | ||
New Zealand | 21,645[177] | 21,645 | 47,322 (25,677 students)[75] | |
Slovakia | 5,455,407 | 45,500 (1%[123] of 4,549,955[121]) | ||
Norway | 4,644,457 | 12,573[178] | 36,250[75] | |
China | 1,339,724,852[179] | 30,000 (students)[180] | ||
Gibraltar | 29,441[181] | 22,758 (77.3%[182]) | ||
Lithuania | 2,972,949[183] | 28,297 (1%[123] of 2,829,740[121]) | ||
Luxembourg | 524,853 | 4,049 (1%[120] of 404,907[121]) | 8,098 (2%[122] of 404,907[121]) | 24,294 (6%[123] of 404,907[121]) |
Russia | 143,400,000[184] | 3,320[110] | 3,320[110] | 23,320[110] |
Western Sahara | 513,000[185] | n.a.[186] | 22,000[110] | |
Guam | 19,092[187] | |||
US Virgin Islands | 16,788[188] | 16,788[110] | 16,788[110] | |
Latvia | 2,209,000[189] | 13,943 (1%[123] of 1,447,866[121]) | ||
Turkey | 73,722,988[190] | 1,134[110] | 1,134[110] | 13,480[110][191] |
Cyprus | 2%[123] of 660,400[121] | |||
India | 1,210,193,422[192] | 9,750 (students)[193] | ||
Estonia | 9,457 (1%[123] of 945,733[121]) | |||
Jamaica | 2,711,476[194] | 8,000[195] | 8,000[195] | 8,000[195] |
Namibia | 3,870[196] | |||
Egypt | 3,500[197] | |||
Malta | 3,354 (1%[123] of 335,476[121]) | |||
European Union (excluded Spain) | 460,624,488[198] | 2,397,000 (559,525 already counted)[199] | ||
Total | 7,228,000,000 (Total World Population)[200] | 440.279.575[2][201] | 480.896.569 [2] (6,66%) | 531.760.408 [2][202][203] (7,36%) |
There are important variations—phonological, grammatical, and lexical—in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas.
The variety with the most speakers is Mexican Spanish. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112 million of the total of more than 500 million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the reduction or loss of unstressed vowels, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.[204][205]
In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. Even so, the speech of Madrid, which has typically southern features such as yeísmo and s-aspiration, is the standard variety for use on radio and television.[206][207][208][209] The educated Madrid variety has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.[210]
The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩, (2) the debuccalization of syllable-final /s/, (3) the phoneme /θ/ ("theta"), (4) and the phoneme /ʎ/ ("turned y"),[211]
The main grammatical variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns: especially those of the second person and, to a lesser extent, the object pronouns of the third person.
Bagian ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. |
Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the distinction between a formal and a familiar register in the second-person singular, and thus have two different pronouns meaning "you": usted in the formal, and either tú or vos in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of tú or vos varying from one dialect to another. The use of vos (and/or its verb forms) is called voseo. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used—usted, tú, and vos—denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.[213]
In voseo, vos is the subject form (vos decís, "you say") and the form for the object of a preposition (voy con vos, "I'm going with you"), while the direct and indirect object forms, and the possessives, are the same as those associated with tú: Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan ("You know your friends respect you"). Additional examples: "Vos te acostaste con el tuerto" (Gené Ulf [Arg. 1988]); "Lugar que odio [...] como te odio a vos" (Rossi María [C. Rica 1985]); "No cerrés tus ojos" (Flores Siguamonta [Guat. 1993]).
The verb forms of general voseo are the same as those used with tú except in the present tense (indicative and imperative) verbs. The forms for vos generally can be derived from those of vosotros (the traditional second-person familiar plural) by deleting the glide [i̯], or /d/, where it appears in the ending: vosotros pensáis > vos pensás; vosotros volvéis > vos volvés, pensad! (vosotros) > pensá! (vos), volved! (vosotros) > volvé! (vos) .
Indicative | Subjunctive | Imperative | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Past | Conditional | Present | Past | |
pensás | pensabas | pensarías | pienses | pensaras | pensá |
volvés | volvías | volverías | vuelvas | volvieras | volvé |
dormís | dormías | dormirías | duermas | durmieras | dormí |
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation. |
In Chilean voseo on the other hand, almost all verb forms are distinct from their standard tú-forms.
Indicative | Subjunctive | Imperative | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present | Past | Conditional | Present | Past | |
pensái | pensabai | pensaríai | pensís | pensarai | piensa |
volvís | volvíai | volveríai | volvái | volvierai | vuelve |
dormís | dormíai | dormiríai | durmái | durmierai | duerme |
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation. |
The use of the pronoun vos with the verb forms of tú (e.g. vos piensas) is called "pronominal voseo". And conversely, the use of the verb forms of vos with the pronoun tú (e.g. tú pensás or tú pensái) is called "verbal voseo".
In Chile, for example, verbal voseo is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun vos which is often reserved for deeply informal situations.
Although vos is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, although with wide differences in social consideration. Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of tuteo in the following areas: almost all of Mexico, the West Indies, Panama, most of Peru and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
Tuteo (the use of tú) as a cultured form alternates with voseo as a popular or rural form in Bolivia, in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of Zulia), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that voseo can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.[214]
Tuteo exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar voseo in Chile, in the Venezuelan state of Zulia, on the Caribbean coast of Colombia (Montería, Sincelejo, Cartagena, Barranquilla, Riohacha and Valledupar), in the Azuero Peninsula in Panama, in the Mexican state of Chiapas, and in parts of Guatemala.
Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Costa Rica, eastern Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian departments of Antioquia (the second largest in population), Caldas, Risaralda, Quindio, and parts of The Valle del Cauca department.[213]
Ustedes functions as formal and informal second person plural in over 90% of the Spanish-speaking world, including all of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and some regions of Andalusia. In Seville, Cadiz, and other parts of western Andalusia, the familiar form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the traditional second-person plural form of the verb. Most of Spain maintains the formal/familiar distinction with ustedes and vosotros respectively.
Usted is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a familiar context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica, and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of tú or vos. This usage is sometimes called ustedeo in Spanish.
In Central America, especially in Honduras, usted is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. Usted is also used in this way, as well as between parents and children, in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.
Most speakers use (and the Real Academia Española prefers) the pronouns lo and la for direct objects (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of animacy, meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and le for indirect objects (regardless of gender or animacy, meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). This usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the accusative and dative pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish.
Deviations from this norm (more common in Spain than in the Americas) are called "leísmo", "loísmo", or "laísmo", according to which respective pronoun—le, lo, or la—has expanded beyond the etymological usage (i.e. le as a direct object, or lo or la as an indirect object).
Some words can be different, even significantly so, in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms, even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequilla, aguacate and albaricoque (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca, palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay.
The everyday Spanish words coger ('to take'), pisar ('to step on') and concha ('seashell') are considered extremely rude in parts of Hispanic America, where the meaning of coger and pisar is also "to have sex" and concha means "vagina". The Puerto Rican word for "bobby pin" (pinche) is an obscenity in Mexico, but in Nicaragua it simply means "stingy", and in Spain refers to a chef's helper. Other examples include taco, which means "swearword" (among other meanings) in Spain, "traffic jam" in Chile and "heels" (shoe) in Argentina and Peru but is known to the rest of the world as a Mexican dish.
Pija in many countries of Hispanic America and Spain itself is an obscene slang word for "penis", while in Spain the word also signifies "posh girl" or "snobby". Coche, which means "car" in Spain, central Mexico and Argentina, for the vast majority of Spanish-speakers actually means "baby-stroller" or "pushchair", while carro means "car" in some Hispanic American countries and "cart" in others, as well as in Spain. Papaya is the slang term for "vagina" in parts of Cuba and Venezuela, where the fruit is instead called fruta bomba and lechosa, respectively.[215] Also, in Argentina, one would say piña when talking about punching someone else, whereas in other countries, piña refers to a pineapple.
Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Romance languages, including Asturian, Aragonese, Galician, Ladino, Leonese, Mirandese and Portuguese.
It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese- and Spanish-speakers can communicate, although with varying degrees of difficulty.[216][217][218][219] Meanwhile, mutual intelligibility of the written Spanish and Portuguese languages is somewhat higher, given that the difficulties of the spoken forms are based more on phonology than on grammatical and lexical dissimilarities. Ethnologue gives estimates of the lexical similarity between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%. Italian, on the other hand—although its phonology is more similar to that of Spanish—is said to have a lexical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and French or between Spanish and Romanian is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.[220] And comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication.
The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages:
Latin | Spanish | Galician | Portuguese | Astur-Leonese | Aragonese | Catalan | French | Italian | Romanian | English |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
nos | nosotros | nós1 | nós1 | nós, nosotros | nusatros | nosaltres (arch. nós) |
nous2 | noi3 | noi | 'we' |
frater germanum (lit. "true brother") |
hermano | irmán | irmão | hermanu | chirmán | germà (arch. frare)4 |
frère | fratello | frate | 'brother' |
dies martis (Classical) feria tertia (Ecclesiastical) |
martes | martes/terza feira | terça-feira | martes | martes | dimarts | mardi | martedì | marți | 'Tuesday' |
cantiō(nem) canticum |
canción cántico |
canción/cançom5 cántico |
canção | canción (or canciu) |
canta | cançó | chanson | canzone | cântec | 'song' |
magis plus |
más (arch. plus) |
máis | mais (arch. chus or plus) |
más | más (or més) |
més (arch. pus or plus) |
plus | più | mai/plus | 'more' |
manum sinistram | mano izquierda6 (arch. mano siniestra) |
man esquerda6 | mão esquerda6 (arch. mão sẽestra) |
manu izquierda6 (or esquierda; also manzorga) |
man cucha | mà esquerra6 (arch. mà sinistra) |
main gauche | mano sinistra | mâna stângă | 'left hand' |
nihil nullam rem natam (lit. "no thing born") |
nada | nada (also ren and res) |
nada (neca and nula rés in some expressions; arch. rem) |
nada (also un res) |
cosa | res | rien/nul | niente/nulla | nimic/nul | 'nothing' |
cāseus formaticus | queso | queixo | queijo | quesu | queso | formatge | fromage | formaggio/cacio | caș7 | 'cheese' |
1. Also nós outros in early modern Portuguese (e.g. The Lusiads), and nosoutros in Galician.
2. Alternatively nous autres in French.
3. Also noialtri in Southern Italian dialects and languages.
4. Medieval Catalan (e.g. Llibre dels fets).
5. Depending on the written norm used (see Reintegracionism).
6. From Basque esku, "hand" + erdi, "half, incomplete". Notice that this negative meaning also applies for Latin sinistra(m) ("dark, unfortunate").
7. Note that Romanian caș (from Latin cāsevs) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is brânză (from unknown etymology).[221]
Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,[222] is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and Portuguese is spoken by descendants of the Sephardi Jews who were expelled from Spain in the fifteenth century.[222] Conversely, in Portugal the vast majority of the Portuguese Jews converted and became 'New Christians'. Therefore, its relationship to Spanish is comparable with that of the Yiddish language to German. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively Sephardi Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.[222] Judaeo-Spanish lacks the Native American vocabulary which was acquired by standard Spanish during the Spanish colonial period, and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from Hebrew, French, Greek and Turkish, and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled.
Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly olim (immigrants to Israel) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In the case of the Latin American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to the risk of assimilation by modern Castilian.
A related dialect is Haketia, the Judaeo-Spanish of northern Morocco. This too tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.
Templat:Spanish language
Spanish is written in the Latin script, with the addition of the character ⟨ñ⟩ (eñe, representing the phoneme /ɲ/, a letter distinct from ⟨n⟩, although typographically composed of an ⟨n⟩ with a tilde) and the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ (che, representing the phoneme /t͡ʃ/) and ⟨ll⟩ (elle, representing the phoneme /ʎ/). However, the digraph ⟨rr⟩ (erre fuerte, 'strong r', erre doble, 'double r', or simply erre), which also represents a distinct phoneme /r/, is not similarly regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ have been treated as letter pairs for collation purposes, though they remain a part of the alphabet. Words with ⟨ch⟩ are now alphabetically sorted between those with ⟨cg⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, instead of following ⟨cz⟩ as they used to. The situation is similar for ⟨ll⟩.[223][224]
Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters and 2 digraphs:
The letters k and w are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages (kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi, etc.).
With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as México (see Toponymy of Mexico), pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the syllable before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including ⟨y⟩) or with a vowel followed by ⟨n⟩ or an ⟨s⟩; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an acute accent on the stressed vowel.
The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain homophones, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a clitic: compare el ('the', masculine singular definite article) with él ('he' or 'it'), or te ('you', object pronoun) with té ('tea'), de (preposition 'of') versus dé ('give' [formal imperative/third-person present subjunctive]), and se (reflexive pronoun) versus sé ('I know' or imperative 'be').
The interrogative pronouns (qué, cuál, dónde, quién, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives (ése, éste, aquél, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. Accent marks used to be omitted in capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the Real Academia Española advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent.
When u is written between g and a front vowel e or i, it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis ü indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigüeña, 'stork', is pronounced [θiˈɣweɲa]; if it were written *cigueña, it would be pronounced *[θiˈɣeɲa]).
Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with inverted question and exclamation marks (¿ and ¡, respectively).
The Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), founded in 1713,[228] together with the 21 other national ones (see Association of Spanish Language Academies), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.[229] Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media.
The Association of Spanish Language Academies (Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, or ASALE) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 22 countries, ordered by date of Academy foundation: Spain (1713),[231] Colombia (1871),[232] Ecuador (1874),[233] Mexico (1875),[234] El Salvador (1876),[235] Venezuela (1883),[236] Chile (1885),[237] Peru (1887),[238] Guatemala (1887),[239] Costa Rica (1923),[240] Philippines (1924),[241] Panama (1926),[242] Cuba (1926),[243] Paraguay (1927),[244] Dominican Republic (1927),[245] Bolivia (1927),[246] Nicaragua (1928),[247] Argentina (1931),[248] Uruguay (1943),[249] Honduras (1949),[250] Puerto Rico (1955),[251] and United States (1973).[252]
The Instituto Cervantes (Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide non-profit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branched out in over 20 different countries with 54 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American culture and Spanish Language. The ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote the education, the study and the use of Spanish universally as a second language, to support the methods and activities that would help the process of Spanish language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures throughout non-Spanish-speaking countries.
Spanish is recognised as one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the African Union, the Union of South American Nations, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, the Latin Union, the Caricom and the North American Free Trade Agreement.
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