Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were fought during the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte over France. They started after the French Revolution ended, and Bonaparte became powerful in France in November 1799. War restarted between the United Kingdom and France in 1803 despite the Treaty of Amiens.

Napoleonic Wars
Battle of Waterloo
Date 18 May 1803 – 20 November 1815 (1803-05-18 – 1815-11-20) (12 years, 5 months and 4 weeks) Location Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Río de la Plata, French Guiana, West Indies, Indian Ocean, North America, Caucasus Result Coalition victory Congress of Vienna Full results Exile of Napoleon I to St. Helena[1] Fall of the First French Empire Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire[2] and Denmark-Norway[3][4] Decline of the Spanish and Portuguese empires[5] Establishment of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway,[6] and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands[7][8] Rise of the British Empire as the dominant world superpower[9] Rise of Prussia as a great power[10] Beginning of the Risorgimento[11][12] and the Unification of Germany[13] Widespread rise of nationalism and liberalism in Europe[14][15] Major population loss[16]
Belligerents
Coalition powers: United Kingdom Hanover[lower-alpha 1] Austria[lower-greek 1][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] Russian Empire[lower-greek 2][lower-alpha 4]  Prussia[lower-greek 3] Spain[lower-greek 4][lower-alpha 5] Portuguese Empire[lower-greek 5]  Sweden[lower-greek 6][lower-alpha 6] French Royalists Papal States  Ottoman Empire[lower-greek 7][lower-alpha 7] Persia[lower-greek 7][lower-alpha 8]  Sicily[lower-greek 8][lower-alpha 9] Hungary[lower-greek 9][lower-alpha 10] Bavaria[lower-greek 10] Württemberg Saxony Sardinia[lower-greek 11] United Netherlands  Brunswick Tuscany Nassau Montenegro[lower-greek 12]	French Empire and allies: French Republic (1792–1804) French Empire (1804–1815) French clients:  Kingdom of Italy Duchy of Warsaw[lower-alpha 11] Polish Legions[lower-alpha 11] Holland[lower-alpha 12] Etruria[lower-alpha 13] Lucca-Piombino  Naples[lower-alpha 14] Switzerland Confederation of the Rhine[lower-greek 13][lower-alpha 15][lower-alpha 16] Bonapartist Spain[lower-alpha 5] Spain[lower-greek 14][lower-alpha 5] Denmark–Norway[lower-alpha 17][lower-greek 15] Austria[lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3][lower-greek 16]  Ottoman Empire[lower-greek 17][lower-alpha 7] Russian Empire[lower-greek 7][lower-alpha 4]  Prussia[lower-greek 7][lower-alpha 3] Persia[lower-greek 18][lower-alpha 8]  Sweden[lower-greek 19][lower-alpha 6]
Commanders and leaders
George III Duke of Wellington Horatio Nelson † Francis II Alexander I Mikhail Kutuzov Michael de Tolly Pyotr Bagration † Gustav IV Adolf Charles XIII Charles XIV John John VI Ferdinand I Friedrich Wilhelm III Fernando VII Louis XVIII William I of Netherlands William II of Netherlands	Napoleon Jean-de-Dieu Soult Louis-Nicholas Davout Andre Massena Michel Ney Louis Bonaparte Eugene de Beauharnais Charles IV of Spain Joachim Murat Friedrich August I Józef Poniatowski † Maximillien I Joseph [[Jerome Bonaparte
Strength
900,000 Russian regulars, cossacks and militia at peak strength[20] 750,000 British under arms in total 250,000 British regulars and militia at peak strength[21] 320,000 Prussian regulars and militia at peak strength[22] Unknown numbers of Austrians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Swedish and other coalition members	3,000,000 French under arms in total 1,200,000 French regulars and militia at peak strength[23] 680,000 French and allied regulars at peak strength[24]<
Casualties and losses
Italians: 120,000 killed or missing[25] Spanish: more than 300,000 military deaths[25] — more than 586,000 killed[26] Portuguese: up to 250,000 dead or missing[27] British: 32,232 killed in action[28] British: 279,574 killed by wounds, disease, accidents and other causes[28] Russian: 289,000 killed in action[29] Prussian: 134,000 killed in action[29] Austrian: 550,220 killed in action (1792–1815)[29][30]<	371,000 killed in action[31] 800,000 killed by disease, wounds, accidents and other causes[32] 600,000 civilians killed[32] 65,000 French allies killed[32]
Total 3,707,000+ military and civilians killed 1805, 1809, 1813–1815 1804–1807, 1812–1815 1806–1807, 1813–1815 1808–1815 1800–1807, 1809–1815 1804–1809, 1812–1815 1807–1812 1806–1815 1809 1813–1815 1815 1806–1807, 1813–1814 1808–1813 1803–1808 1807–1814 1809–1813 1806–1809 1804–1807, 1812–1813 1810–1812

Napoléon Bonaparte

The wars changed European military systems. Cannons became lighter and moved faster. Armies were much larger but had better food and supplies and were very large and destructive, mainly because of compulsory conscription. The French became powerful very fast and conquered most of Europe but then lost quickly after the French invasion of Russia failed.

The Napoleonic Wars ended with the Second Treaty of Paris on 20 November 1815, just after the huge Battle of Waterloo, a large battle that the French lost. Napoleon was sent into exile, and the House of Bourbon ruled France again.

Some people call the time between 20 April 1792 and 20 November 1815 "the Great French War". On one side were the France, the Kingdom of Italy and others. On the other side were Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, Sicily, and others.

1805-1812: Napoleon conquers Europe

On May 18, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French at Notre-Dame de Paris. The following year, the Third Coalition started in response, but he crowned himself King of Italy. Austrian Emperor Franz I angrily declared war on him and began the War of the Third Coalition. The British destroyed the French Navy at the Battle of Trafalgar in October. In December, the Austrians and the Russians allied and fought the French at the Battle of Austerlitz. The Russo-Austrian army suffered a devastating defeat and had to sign a treaty with Napoleon.

In 1806, the War of the Fourth Coalition started. The Kingdom of Prussia declared war on France first but was crushed by Napoleon's troops at the Battle of Jena. Napoleon captured Berlin before the Russians could help. In 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army at the Battle of Friedland, which ended the Fourth Coalition.

In 1809, the War of the Fifth Coalition began with Austria declaring war on Napoleon. In the early phases of the war, the Austrians had the advantage of the war, but later the French captured Vienna and ended the Fifth Coalition. At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon had controlled France, Spain, northern Italy, Germany and part of Russia.

In 1808, the Peninsular War began when Napoleon crowned his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain, and France fought British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops. In 1809, the Finnish War began between Russia and Sweden after Sweden and Portugal made peace with France. That led to the annexation of Finland by Russia and the decisive failure of Sweden. In 1811, France and Russia had disagreements again, and Napoleon allied with Prussia and Austria and invaded Russia.

1812: Invasion of Russia and War of 1812

Napoleon staged a French invasion of Russia in 1812 by gathering the largest army that Europe and possibly the whole world had ever seen, just as the Americans and the British started the War of 1812. In Russia, Napoleon barely won the huge Battle of Borodino but lost many of his soldiers. Napoleon hoped to make peace with the Russias, but they decided to retreat and abandon Moscow to the advancing French troops. Napoleon found Moscow empty and burning. The cold winter along with starvation from scorched earth tactics devastated Napoleon's army. That was the first important defeat in his conquest of Europe

Napoleon's weakened Grande Armée had to retreat to Paris through the freezing winter of Russia but was finally defeated by the Russians. Prussia and Austria declared war after Napoleon's failure and began the War of the Sixth Coalition. Later, Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace and Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky's music piece 1812 Overture depicted the Patriotic War and celebrated the resistance and the liberation of Russia.

Meanwhile, the much smaller War of 1812 started between the British and the Americans, the latter trying to conquer Canada. The war continued until 1815, neither side gaining anything. Revolutions in Latin America made independent states in the Americas of most of the Spanish Empire, which was unstable by the French invasion.

1813-1814: Battle of Leipzig and First Restoration

The British, Spanish and Portuguese had pushed Napoleon's forces out of Spain after the Battle of Vitoria. Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig and captured Paris in 1814. The brother of the executed King Louis XVI had already proclaimed himself as French King Louis XVIII, was sent by the Prussian forces to Paris and was crowned. Napoleon was forced to abdicate.

1815: Battle of Waterloo and Hundred Days

Napoleon was later exiled to Elba and was nearly assassinated. However, he and 200 other men escaped back to Paris, forced Louis XVIII off the throne and stated the Hundred Days. The former Allies formed the Seventh Coalition, and the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon again at the Battle of Waterloo with the help of the Prussian General Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in 1815. Louis XVIII was returned to the throne again, and the Second Restoration began.

References

1. Hanover was in a Personal Union with Great Britain
2. The term "Austrian Empire" came into use after Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, whereby Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor took the title Emperor of Austria (Kaiser von Österreich) in response. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, and consequently "Emperor of Austria" became Francis' primary title. For this reason, "Austrian Empire" is often used instead of "Holy Roman Empire" for brevity's sake when speaking of the Napoleonic Wars, even though the two entities are not synonymous.
3. Both Austria and Prussia briefly became allies of France and contributed forces to the French Invasion of Russia in 1812.
4. Russia became an ally of France following the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. The alliance broke down in 1810, which led to the French invasion in 1812. During that time Russia waged war against Sweden (1808–1809) and the Ottoman Empire (1806–1812), and nominally against Britain (1807–1812).
5. Spain was an ally of France until a stealthy French invasion in 1808, then fought France in the Peninsular War.
6. Nominally, Sweden declared war against Great Britain after its defeat by Russia in the Finnish War (1808–1809).
7. The Ottoman Empire fought against Napoleon in the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria as part of the French Revolutionary Wars. During the Napoleonic era of 1803 to 1815, the Empire participated in two wars against the Allies: against Britain in the Anglo-Turkish War (1807–1809) and against Russia in the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812). Russia was allied with Napoleon 1807–1810.
8. Qajar dynasty fought against Russia from 1804 to 1813; the Russians were allied with Napoleon 1807–1812.
9. Sicily remained in personal union with Naples until Naples became a French client-republic following the Battle of Campo Tenese in 1806.
10. The Kingdom of Hungary participated in the war with separate Hungarian regiments^[17][18] in the Imperial and Royal Army, and also by a traditional army ("insurrectio").^[19] The Hungarian Diet voted to join in war and agreed to pay one third of the war expenses.
11. Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by the Kingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish Legions had already been serving in the French armies beforehand.
12. The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Holland in 1810. Dutch troops fought against Napoleon during the Hundred Days in 1815.
13. The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Etruria in 1807.
14. The Kingdom of Naples, briefly allied with Austria in 1814, allied with France again and fought against Austria during the Neapolitan War in 1815.
15. Sixteen of France's allies among the German states (including Bavaria and Württemberg) established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806 following the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805). Following the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (October 1806), various other German states that had previously fought alongside the anti-French allies, including Saxony and Westphalia, also allied with France and joined the Confederation. Saxony changed sides again in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig, causing most other member-states to quickly follow suit and declare war on France.
16. These four states were the leading nations of the Confederation, but the Confederation was made up of a total of 43 principalities, kingdoms, and duchies.
17. Denmark-Norway remained neutral until the Battle of Copenhagen (1807). Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. Following a brief Swedish campaign against Norway, Norway entered a personal union with Sweden.

1. John Sainsbury (1842). Sketch of the Napoleon Museum. London. p. 15.
2. Reich 1905, p. 622 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFReich1905 (help)
3. "Denmark". World Statesmen. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
4. "Norway". World Statesmen. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
5. Benjamin Keen and Keith Haynes, A History of Latin America (2012) ch 8
6. Schafer, Anton (2002). Zeittafel der Rechtsgeschichte: von den Anfangen uber Rom bis 1919 mit Schwerpunkt Osterreich und zeitgenossischen Bezugen ; [mit uber 1400 Jahresdaten (mehr als 2000 Eintragungen) und 39 Seiten mit Stichwortern fur die effiziente Suche von 10000 v.d.Zw. bis 1919 n.d.Zw.] EDITION EUROPA Verlag. p. 137. ISBN 3-9500616-8-1.
7. Edward et al., pp. 522–524
8. "De Grondwet van 1815". Parlement & Politiek (in Dutch). Retrieved 26 June 2014.
9. "The Royal Navy". Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
10. Dwyer, Philip G. (2014). The Rise of Prussia 1700-1830. Routledge. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-317-88703-4.
11. Collier, Martin (2003). Italian unification, 1820–71. Heinemann Advanced History (First ed.). Oxford: Heinemann. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-435-32754-5. The Risorgimento is the name given to the process that ended with the political unification of Italy in 1871
12. Riall, Lucy (1994). The Italian Risorgimento: state, society, and national unification (First ed.). London: Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-203-41234-3. The functional importance of the Risorgimento to both Italian politics and Italian historiography has made this short period (1815–60) one of the most contested and controversial in modern Italian history
13. Jakob Walter, and Marc Raeff. The diary of a Napoleonic foot soldier. Princeton, N.J., 1996.
14. Martyn Lyons p. 234–36
15. Payne 1973, pp. 432–433. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPayne1973 (help)
16. Esdaile 2008. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEsdaile2008 (help)
17. Arnold, James R. (1995). Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-275-94694-4.
18. The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army (Kaiserliche-Königliche Heer) 1805 – 1809: The Hungarian Royal Army The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army Kaiserliche-Königliche Heer): 1805 – 1809
19. Todd Fisher: The Napoleonic Wars: The Empires Fight Back 1808–1812, Oshray Publishing, 2001 Archived 2015-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
20. Riehn 1991, p. 50. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRiehn1991 (help)
21. Chandler & Beckett, p. 132
22. Blücher, scourge of Napoleon, Leggiere
23. France, John (2011). Perilous Glory: The Rise of Western Military Power. Yale UP. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-300-17744-2.
24. Napoleon, Fondation (2012). Correspondance generale - Tome 12. Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-67272-4.
25. White 2014, Napoleonic Wars harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Urlanis 1971 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUrlanis1971 (help)
26. Canales 2004. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCanales2004 (help)
27. White 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Payne harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPayne (help)
28. White 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Dumas 1923 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDumas1923 (help) citing Hodge
29. White 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Danzer harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDanzer (help)
30. White 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Clodfelter harvnb error: no target: CITEREFClodfelter (help)
31. White 2014 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWhite2014 (help) cites Bodart 1916 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBodart1916 (help)
32. Philo 2010. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPhilo2010 (help)