反文化

反文化（或反主流文化、逆主流文化、非主流文化，英语：Counterculture或counter-culture）是亚文化的一种，这种文化所倡导的行为规范与价值观通常与主流文化所规范的习俗大相径庭，有时甚至相反。^[1]^[2]

在成规束缚的时代下，一个特定的群体可能会组织一个反文化运动，表达自身的思潮、愿景及梦想。当运动的力量达到临界点时，反文化运动甚至能撼动主流文化。

反文化在欧洲和北美的知名例子有浪漫主义（1790年-1840年）还有波希米亚主义（1850年-1910年）。较广义的例子还包括垮掉的一代（1944年-1964年）和嬉皮士文化（1964年-1974年）。^[3]

定义及特征

反文化一词最先由希欧多尔·罗扎克（英语：Theodore Roszak (scholar)）（Theodore Roszak）使用，^[3]^[4]^[5]他著有《反文化的形成（英语：The Making of a Counter Culture）》一书。^[6]这一词汇在20世纪60至70年代的社会革命（英语：social revolution）中借由新闻媒体横扫南北美、西欧、日本、澳大利亚和新西兰。^[1]^[3]^[5]

各路学者在分析反文化的特点和特殊性时见解不一。当然主流文化本身定义起来也很困难，且某种程度上靠着反文化的陪衬才能被很好地理解。反文化有别于大众文化（或传媒文化）， ^[7]或中产阶级文化价值观。 ^[8]反文化有时被概念地认为是一种代沟和不认同父辈价值观的表现。^[9]

反文化可能是也可能不是一个确切的政治层面上的事物。典型的反文化常激起当代主流力量的批评和反对，伴随着建立新社会及寻求更好生活的期待。^[10]因此在党派政治或权力主义中并不讨好。^[11]

通常，当一种“边缘文化”将自己的价值观与主流文化对立起来，它便可能扩展为“反文化”。^{[来源请求]} 反文化趋向于先达到顶峰，再在淡出社会的道路上给主流文化留下深远的影响。整个历程大致包括如下阶段：受排挤、自身成长、部分被接受及融入主流文化。^{[来源请求]} 在20世纪60年代末，嬉皮士成为了美国最大最抢眼的反文化团体。^[12]由浪漫主义者、波希米亚人、垮掉的一代和嬉皮士留下的“文化阴影”直到当代仍在西方文化中依稀可辨。^{[来源请求]}

希拉·惠特莉（Sheila Whiteley）认为，当代社会学理论的发展使得20世纪60年代发展起来的理论变得复杂且问题重重。例如，电子科技就提供了一种促成对其产生新见解的推动力。^[13]安迪·班尼特（Andy Bennett）写到， “尽管有理论争端能用以反对把反文化当作一个像亚文化一样含义丰富的富社会学价值的术语来对社会性行为进行描述和分类，这个术语仍然被用于表述社会和文化理论（英语：cultural theory）概念。”^[14] 然而，“反文化涉及到的层面不仅有乌托邦，还有反乌托邦。像在蒙特里和伍德斯托克所庆祝的节日看起来似乎是为了拥抱乌托邦的理想而展开。同时布莱恩·琼斯、吉米·亨德里克斯、吉姆·莫里森和珍妮丝·贾普林等标志性人物的死，以及阿尔塔蒙特自由音乐会莫须有的中伤，和查理·曼森这样朦胧的人物给它的实际意图蒙上了一层更深的阴影。这提示着我们，‘当今的世界仍显得过于畸形’。”^[15]^[16]

西方的反文化（1960-1970年代）

在美国，1960年代的反文化的象征是抵制符合习俗的50年代的社会规范。反文化青年拒绝接受父辈的文化标准，尤其是种族隔离和支持越战方面的。^[2]^[17]而且，较委婉地，他们还抵制冷战 — 年轻人们担心美国和苏联的核武竞赛及其在越南的动作会招致核子浩劫（英语：nuclear holocaust）。

在英国，1960年代的反文化也主要表现在对40至50年代的社会规范的对抗行为上。尽管“核裁军运动”主要致力于反对核武器，但这场运动也催生了后来的1960年代的和平标志。

在1960年代的美国社会，酝酿着普遍的紧张气氛，并有着随越战，种族关系（英语：race relations），性革命，女权运动，传统权利架构运动等事物的发展，而在代与代之间激化的趋势。^[18]作为西方反文化的中流砥柱的白人和中产阶级青年因为当时普遍的经济繁荣，得以有充分的空闲时间将精力着眼于社会问题。^[19]这些社会问题囊括了支持公民权、女权、同性恋者权益及对越战的反对。反文化也遇到了热心于帮忙将他们的观点呈现给大众的媒体。为捍卫社会正义的示威游行产生了深远广泛的影响，并从很多方面改变了社会。嬉皮士成了美国最大的反文化团体。^[12]

"60年代是人类意识的一个飞跃。圣雄甘地、马尔科姆·X、马丁·路德·金、切·格瓦拉和德兰修女,他们都诚心为不公领导政治和社会革命。披头士乐队、门户合唱团和吉米·亨德里克斯在音乐界创造革命和创新主题.。他们的音乐就像西班牙画家萨尔瓦多·达利一样,有着缤纷的色彩以及革命般的形式。当下年轻的一代必须去了解他们才来发现自我。"

— 卡洛斯·山塔那^[20]

对主流文化的反抗在新体裁的致幻（英语：psychedelic）的摇滚乐、流行艺术和对灵魂的探索中体现的最淋漓尽致. 见证了这一年代的音乐家/乐队有披头士、感恩而死、杰佛森飞船、吉米·亨德里克斯、门户合唱团、Cream、滚石乐队、尼尔·杨、鲍勃·迪伦、珍妮丝·贾普林、平克·弗洛伊德、琼尼·米歇尔、以及早期的芝加哥乐队。演唱会的发明也在传播反文化中起到了关键性作用，其中大型露天摇滚演唱会最为功不可没。其中最登峰造极的一次是在1969年8月15日至18日在纽约贝瑟（Bethel）举行的伍德斯托克音乐节。共有32名摇滚乐与迷幻摇滚音乐家冒着周末的阵雨对着近50万人现场演奏。（麦可·兰称听众有40万，而其中没买票的占了一半）^[21]这被公认为流行音乐史上的转折点，滚石杂志更将其列为“改变摇滚历史的50个瞬间”之一。^[22]比尔·曼金说，“‘伍德斯托克的一代’这个词用来描述那个年代中被摇滚演唱会改变的整整一代人，看上去正合适。^[23]

有时这些也在流行歌曲和流行的谚语中体现，如 "做你自己的事"、蒂莫西·利里的"激发热情、内向探索、脱离体制"、"只要你喜欢"、"狂野人生（英语：Eight miles high）"、"色情、毒品和摇滚乐（英语：Wine, women and song）"和"火光"。

反文化文学作品

20世纪60年代至70年代早期的反文化文学作品独树一帜。有时，他们会被叫做地下刊物。在美国，这类作品有Mr. Natural（英语：Mr. Natural (comics)）; Keep on Truckin'（英语：Keep on Truckin' (comics)）; Fritz the Cat（英语：Fritz the Cat）; Fat Freddy's Cat（英语：Fat Freddy's Cat）; Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers（英语：Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers）; the album cover art for Cheap Thrills（英语：Cheap Thrills (Big Brother and the Holding Company album)）; and in several countries contributions to International Times（英语：International Times）, The Village Voice, and Oz (magazine)（英语：Oz magazine），另有Robert Crumb（英语：Robert Crumb） and Gilbert Shelton（英语：Gilbert Shelton）的一些作品也在此列。在20世纪60年代末和70年代初，这些漫画和杂志能在迷幻品店（英语：head shop）里和诸如弹珠、香、香烟、扎染织物和书本之类的货物一起买到。

在20世纪60至70年代，有些买这种东西的商店发展成为了咖啡厅，而嬉皮士们则在此进行小聚、聊天、吸食大麻、读书等活动。例子有国王街的Gandalf's Garden（英语：Gandalf's Garden）、伦敦的Chelsea（这家店还出版过同名杂志）。^[24]这种嬉皮士和无政府主义风格的书店还有坐落于Lace Market（英语：Lace Market） area of Nottingham的Mushroom Books。^[25]^[26]

同性恋（LGBT）

LGBT社群，尤其是北美、南锥地区、西欧、澳大利亚和南非的LGBT社群，称得上真正的“与当时主流的价值观和行为准则背道而驰的文化团体”。

在二十世纪初的这些国家和地区中，同性恋是有罪的。主流观点认为同性恋是道德的败坏，而理应受到惩戒。奥斯卡·王尔德在1895年因“与其他男性进行有伤风化的行为”受到审判和锒铛入狱便是一证。但即使在当时，也是有不同的声音的。西格蒙德·弗洛伊德就曾于1905年公开宣称道，他认为同性恋对于一部分人来说是完全正常的。根据查尔斯·凯瑟（Charles Kaiser）的《大都市同性恋者》（英语：The Gay Metropolis），1930年代中期，美国已经有半公开的同性恋主题聚会（例如哈莱姆文艺复兴时期举行的drag（英语：Drag (clothing)）活动）。也有迎合同性恋客户的酒吧和澡堂，并用黑话警告顾客警方可能进行突袭（就像禁酒令时期地下酒吧所用的切口）。但当时同性恋通常被认为是波西米亚文化的一部分，其本身没有特别重大的意义^[27]。

俄罗斯及苏维埃的反文化

亚洲反文化

20世纪80年代兴起的中国摇滚是中国大陆反文化的代表。

参见

Dialectic of Enlightenment
Exi (subculture)（英语：Exi (subculture)）
La Movida Madrileña（英语：La Movida Madrileña）
Punk subculture
Radicalization（英语：Radicalization）
Counter-economics（英语：Counter-economics）
Guerrilla theatre（英语：Guerrilla theatre）
Underground (British subculture)（英语：Underground (British subculture)）
Nambassa（英语：Nambassa）
Hipster
嘻哈
1960s

参考书目

Bennett, Andy. Reappraising "counterculture. Volume!（英语：Volume!）, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun. 2012 [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-19）.
Curl, John (2007), Memories of Drop City, The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and the Summer of Love, a memoir, iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-42343-4. https://web.archive.org/web/20090413150607/http://red-coral.net/DropCityIndex.html
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. 7, pp. 123–245). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1905)
Gelder, Ken (2007), Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice, London: Routledge.
Goffman, Ken (2004), Counterculture through the ages Villard Books ISBN 0-375-50758-2
Heath, Joseph and Andrew Potter (2004) Nation of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture Collins Books ISBN 0-06-074586-X
Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo (2009), Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1633-0 ISBN 978-0700616336
Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (1991), Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-war Britain, London: Routledge.
Hazlehurst, Cameron and Kayleen M. Hazlehurst (1998), Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations, New Brunswick & London: Transaction Publishers.
Hebdige, Dick (1979), Subculture: the Meaning of Style, London & New York: Routledge.
Paul Hodkinson and Wolfgang Deicke (2007), Youth Cultures Scenes, Subcultures and Tribes, New York: Routledge.
Macfarlane, Scott (2007),The Hippie Narrative: A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co Inc, ISBN 0-7864-2915-1 & ISBN 978-0-7864-2915-8.
McKay, George (1996), Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties. London Verso. ISBN 1-85984-028-0.
Nelson, Elizabeth (1989), The British Counterculture 1966-73: A Study of the Underground Press. London: Macmillan.
Roszak, Theodore (1968) The Making of a Counter Culture.
Isadora Tast (2009), Mother India. Searching For a Place. Berlin: Peperoni Books, ISBN 978-3-941825-00-0
Whiteley, Sheila. Countercultures: Music, Theories & Scenes. Volume!（英语：Volume!）, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun. 2012 [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-19）.
Whiteley, Sheila. Countercultures: Utopias, Dystopias, Anarchy. Volume!（英语：Volume!）,. n°9-1-2, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun. 2012 [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2013-08-19）.

参考来源

[1]
"counterculture," Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 2008, MWCCul （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
[2]
Eric Donald Hirsch. The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65597-8. (1993) p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and Europe before fading in the 1970s... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."
[3]
F.X. Shea, S.J., "Reason and the Religion of the Counter-Culture", Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 66/1 (1973), pp. 95-111, JSTOR-3B2-X.
[4]
Andrea Gollin. Social critic Theodore Roszak *58 explores intolerance in new novel about gay Jewish writer. PAW Online. 2003-04-23 [2008-06-21]. （原始内容存档于2008-06-16）.
[5]
Roszak, Theodore, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition, 1968/1969, Doubleday, New York, ISBN 0-385-07329-1; ISBN 978-0-385-07329-5.
[6]
His conception of the counterculture is discussed in Whiteley, 2012 and Bennett, 2012.
[7]
Gelder, Subcultures (2007) p. 4. "...to the banalities of mass cultural forms".
[8]
Hodkinson and Deicke, Youth Cultures (2007), p. 205. "...opposition to, the middle-class establishment of adults."
[9]
Hebdige, Subculture (1979), p.127. "defining themselves against the parent culture."
[10]
Hall & Jefferson, Resistance Through Rituals (1991), p.61. "They make articulate their opposition to dominant values and institutions—even when, as frequently occurred, this does not take the form of an overtly political response."
[11]
Hazlehurst & Hazlehurst, Gangs and Youth Subcultures (1998), p.59. "There does seem to be some general commitment towards antiauthoritarianism, a rejection of the traditional party political system which is considered irrelevant."
[12]
Yablonsky, Lewis (1968), The Hippie Trip, New York: Western Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-0595001163, pp 21-37.
[13]
Cf. Whiteley, 2012.
[14]
原文如下："Despite the theoretical arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term for categorising social action, like subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and cultural theory（英语：cultural theory）… [to] become part of a received, mediated memory".
[15]
原文如下: "this involved not simply the utopian but also the dystopian and that while festivals such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock might appear to embrace the former, the deaths of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin, the nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy figure of Charlie Manson cast a darker light on its underlying agenda, one that reminds us that ‘pathological issues [are] still very much at large in today’s world".
[16]
Cf. Andy Bennett, 2012.
[17]
Mary Works Covington, Rockin' At the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock, 2005.
[18]
翻译时，此处有小的省略，原文如下：In the United States, widespread tensions developed in the 1960s in American society that tended to flow along generational lines regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual mores, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation of the American Dream.
^ 引用错误：没有为名为Conscience的参考文献提供内容
[20]
Carlos Santana: I’m Immortal （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010
[21]
State Investigating Handling of Tickets At Woodstock Fair. New York Times. August 27, 1969: 45.
[22]
Woodstock in 1969. Rolling Stone. 2004-06-24 [2008-04-17]. （原始内容存档于2007-02-09）.
[23]
Mankin, Bill. We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. Like the Dew. 2012.
[24]
London a Map of the Underground. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2012-08-25）.
[25]
Mushroom Books, Nottingham. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-07）.
[26]
Founder of radical bookshop dies. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2012-05-27）.
[27]
Kaiser, C. The Gay Metropolis. New York: Harcourt Brace. 1997. ISBN 0-15-600617-0.

外部链接

Dugald Baird, How International Times sparked a publishing revolution, The Guardian, 17 July 2009（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
"Perspectives," Vietnam magazine, Aug. 2002, 58--61.（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (extensive information on the origins of the counterculture)
Беляев, И. А. Культура, субкультура, контркультура（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） / И. А. Беляев, Н. А. Беляева // Духовность и государственность. Сборник научных статей. Выпуск 3; под ред. И. А. Беляева. — Оренбург: Филиал УрАГС в г. Оренбурге, 2002. — С. 5-18.

[MWebster-1] [1]
"counterculture," Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 2008, MWCCul （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.

[Eric_Donald_Hirsch_1993_p_419-2] [2]
Eric Donald Hirsch. The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65597-8. (1993) p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and Europe before fading in the 1970s... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."

[HarvardTR-3] [3]
F.X. Shea, S.J., "Reason and the Religion of the Counter-Culture", Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 66/1 (1973), pp. 95-111, JSTOR-3B2-X.

[4] [4]
Andrea Gollin. Social critic Theodore Roszak *58 explores intolerance in new novel about gay Jewish writer. PAW Online. 2003-04-23 [2008-06-21]. （原始内容存档于2008-06-16）.

[TRbook-5] [5]
Roszak, Theodore, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition, 1968/1969, Doubleday, New York, ISBN 0-385-07329-1; ISBN 978-0-385-07329-5.

[6] [6]
His conception of the counterculture is discussed in Whiteley, 2012 and Bennett, 2012.

[7] [7]
Gelder, Subcultures (2007) p. 4. "...to the banalities of mass cultural forms".

[8] [8]
Hodkinson and Deicke, Youth Cultures (2007), p. 205. "...opposition to, the middle-class establishment of adults."

[9] [9]
Hebdige, Subculture (1979), p.127. "defining themselves against the parent culture."

[10] [10]
Hall & Jefferson, Resistance Through Rituals (1991), p.61. "They make articulate their opposition to dominant values and institutions—even when, as frequently occurred, this does not take the form of an overtly political response."

[11] [11]
Hazlehurst & Hazlehurst, Gangs and Youth Subcultures (1998), p.59. "There does seem to be some general commitment towards antiauthoritarianism, a rejection of the traditional party political system which is considered irrelevant."

[Yablonsky,_Lewis_1968_pp_21-37-12] [12]
Yablonsky, Lewis (1968), The Hippie Trip, New York: Western Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-0595001163, pp 21-37.

[13] [13]
Cf. Whiteley, 2012.

[ABWords-14] [14]
原文如下："Despite the theoretical arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term for categorising social action, like subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and cultural theory（英语：cultural theory）… [to] become part of a received, mediated memory".

[ABWords2-15] [15]
原文如下: "this involved not simply the utopian but also the dystopian and that while festivals such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock might appear to embrace the former, the deaths of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin, the nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy figure of Charlie Manson cast a darker light on its underlying agenda, one that reminds us that ‘pathological issues [are] still very much at large in today’s world".

[16] [16]
Cf. Andy Bennett, 2012.

[17] [17]
Mary Works Covington, Rockin' At the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock, 2005.

[Ommitted1-18] [18]
翻译时，此处有小的省略，原文如下：In the United States, widespread tensions developed in the 1960s in American society that tended to flow along generational lines regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual mores, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation of the American Dream.

[Conscience-19] 引用错误：没有为名为Conscience的参考文献提供内容

[20] [20]
Carlos Santana: I’m Immortal （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010

[NY_Times_Aug_27,_1969-21] [21]
State Investigating Handling of Tickets At Woodstock Fair. New York Times. August 27, 1969: 45.

[22] [22]
Woodstock in 1969. Rolling Stone. 2004-06-24 [2008-04-17]. （原始内容存档于2007-02-09）.

[23] [23]
Mankin, Bill. We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. Like the Dew. 2012.

[24] [24]
London a Map of the Underground. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2012-08-25）.

[25] [25]
Mushroom Books, Nottingham. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-07）.

[26] [26]
Founder of radical bookshop dies. [2013-12-17]. （原始内容存档于2012-05-27）.

[Gay_Metro-27] [27]
Kaiser, C. The Gay Metropolis. New York: Harcourt Brace. 1997. ISBN 0-15-600617-0.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]