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1860–61 United States Senate elections
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The 1860–61 United States Senate elections were held from January 14, 1860, to April 2, 1861. Regularly scheduled elections were held for 23 out of the 68 seats in the United States Senate, and special elections were held in California, Oregon, Maine, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. One seat was previously elected on December 12, 1859. Following the start of the 37th Congress on July 4, 1861, special elections were held in Virginia and Kentucky to fill vacancies resulting from the secession of the Confederacy. The Republican Party flipped six Democratic-held seats and gained control of the Senate for the first time following the departure of senators representing Confederate states.
U.S. senators are divided into three classes whose six-year terms are staggered, such that one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. Senators in Class 3 were elected in 1860 and 1861. Prior to ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment, senators were elected by the U.S. state legislatures. There was no fixed calendar, and states held elections on various dates preceding the first session of Congress. In states with split partisan control of the legislature, multiple rounds of voting could be required to elect a senator, leading to extended vacancies.[1]
The elections took place amidst rising sectional tension over slavery and the related issue of territorial expansion. In the previous Congress, the debate on the proposed Lecompton Constitution and the application of the Dred Scott decision split the Democratic Party between allies of the senator from Illinois Stephen A. Douglas, who opposed the measures, and the administration of James Buchanan. Douglas was nominated for president by his supporters in 1860, while the Buchanan wing consisting of most Southern Democrats and doughfaces coalesced behind the outgoing vice president and senator-elect from Kentucky John C. Breckinridge.[2] In California, Missouri, and Oregon, vote-splitting between Douglas and Breckinridge Democrats resulted gridlock that persisted over multiple rounds of balloting. Republicans were the beneficiaries of Democratic infighting, picking up an open seat in Oregon and using their influence to elect a Douglas Democrat over his Breckinridge Democratic opponent in California.[3]
In the slave states, the opposition to the Democrats was fragmented and generally lacked sufficient numbers to threaten Democratic senators. Of the five slave states to hold regularly scheduled elections, only in Missouri was there a protracted struggle over the selection of the state's senator.[4] In Maryland the American Party was the second party in the legislature, and in North Carolina the Whig label was revived; elsewhere the opponents of the Democrats were called Oppositionists or Constitutional Unionists.[5] These groups subsequently would join forces with unionist Democrats and Republicans in Union coalitions that resisted secession in the Upper South and border states during and after 1861.[6]
Besides Oregon, the Republicans flipped Democratic-held seats in Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania and added two seats representing the new state of Kansas, swelling their caucus to 31 senators. The Democrats flipped an American-held seat in Kentucky, but lost five seats from states that seceded before the end of the 36th Congress; the departure of 16 more Southern senators before July 4 reduced the Democratic caucus to 15 seats. The Republican victory in the 1860 United States presidential election precipitated the resignations of senators Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania, and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, who became vice president, secretary of war, and secretary of the treasury, respectively, in the incoming Lincoln administration; Republicans won all three special elections to select their replacements. Other notable departures included William H. Seward of New York, who retired in order to accept an appointment as secretary of state; Douglas, who died on June 3, 1861, and was replaced by a Republican appointee; Breckinridge, who was expelled from the Senate in December 1861 after enlisting in the Confederate States Army; and Joseph Lane of Oregon, the former vice presidential candidate of the Breckinridge Democrats, whose seat was filled by a Douglas Democrat.[7]
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Change in composition
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Each block represents one of the 66 seats in the U.S. Senate. (The admission of Kansas on January 29, 1861, increased the number of seats in the Senate to 68.) "A#" is an American senator, "D#" is a Democratic senator, "R#" is a Republican senator, "U#" is a Union senator, and "V#" is a vacant seat. They are arranged so that the parties are separated, and a majority is clear by crossing the middle.
Before the elections
This diagram shows the composition of the Senate on January 1, 1860.[8]
After the elections
This diagram shows the projected composition of the Senate as a result of the regularly scheduled elections for the Class III seats and special elections in California and Oregon. In consequence of secession, several more seats had been vacated by the time the 37th United States Congress convened, as shown below.[9]
Beginning of the first session
This diagram shows the composition of the Senate on July 11, 1861, after the start of the first session, following the withdrawal or expulsion of 16 senators from states which had seceded from the Union between Election Day (November 8, 1860,) and the opening of Congress on July 4. Special elections held in Pennsylvania, Maine, and Ohio filled three vacancies which had occurred on or before March 4; a final vacancy, occurring as a result of the death of Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, was filled by appointment pending a special election.[10]
Beginning of the second session
This diagram shows the composition of the Senate on December 10, 1861, after the start of the second session, following special elections held in Kentucky and Virginia to fill vacancies resulting from the expulsion of pro-Confederate senators; a final vacancy, occurring from the death of Edward D. Baker, was filled by appointment pending a special election.[10]
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Race summary
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Special elections during the preceding Congress
Special elections were held between January 14, 1860, and January 9, 1861, to fill three vacancies in the 36th United States Congress.
Elections leading to the next Congress
Eighteen senators were elected for the term beginning March 4, 1861.
Special elections during the next Congress
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Alabama
One-term Democrat Benjamin Fitzpatrick was elected in 1855. He withdrew from the Senate on January 21, 1861, following the secession of Alabama. The Alabama Legislature did not hold an election for the next term, and the seat remained vacant until 1868.[11]
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Arkansas
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One-term Democrat Robert W. Johnson was elected in 1855. He was not a candidate for re-election.[12]
The Arkansas General Assembly met on December 20, 1860, to hold an election for the next term. Democrats Charles B. Mitchel, Samuel H. Hempstead, N. B. Burrow, and George C. Watkins were nominated as candidates.[13] Burrow, a secessionist, declined to be considered; the remaining candidates were notably cautious in their responses to Lincoln's election.[14]
Mitchel was elected with 52 votes on the ninth ballot.[15] He subsequently was expelled from Congress on July 11, 1861, following the secession of Arkansas.[16]
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California
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There were two elections in California, due to the death of David C. Broderick.
California (special)
Incumbent Democrat Henry P. Haun was appointed in 1859 to fill the vacancy created by Broderick's death.[16]
The California State Legislature met in joint session on January 14, 1861, to hold a special election for the unexpired term.[17] The Lecompton Democratic governor of California Milton Latham defeated the Anti-Lecompton Democrat Edward Randolph. The Republican candidate Oscar L. Shafter received only three votes out of the 114 cast.[18]
California (regular)
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Two-term Democrat William M. Gwin was re-elected in 1857 following the failure of the California State Legislature to elect a senator in 1855. He was not a candidate for re-election.[16]
The California Democratic Party was divided between proslavery Chivalry or Lecompton Democrats, and free soil Anti-Lecompton Democrats. The 1860 U.S. presidential election multiplied these divisions, producing splits between supporters of the presidential candidacies of Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckinridge, and between Lecompton and Anti-Lecompton Douglas Democrats. The Constitutional Union Party, composed of conservative former Whigs, was of minimal importance. California Republicans were able to capitalize on the bitterness between the Democratic factions to carry the state in the national election with less than one third of the votes cast.[19]
Gwin's term ended on March 3, 1861, without the legislature having chosen his successor.[20] On March 9, the Senate and the House of Representatives met in joint session to hold an election for the next term.[21] Anti-Lecompton Douglas Democrat James A. McDougall, Breckinridge Democrat John B. Weller, Republican Timothy G. Phelps, and Lecompton Douglas Democrats James W. Denver and John Nugent were the major candidates.[22]
Several coalitions of various factions were attempted during the balloting. Lacking the votes to elect their own candidate, the Republicans threw their support to McDougall in order to forestall a coalition of the Breckinridge and Lecompton Douglas Democrats.[23]
After multiple rounds of voting spread out over several days, McDougall was apparently elected on March 20 with 56 votes on the 22nd ballot.[24] Subsequently, it was discovered that McDougall's total fell one vote short of the requisite majority for a legal election. The joint session reconvened on April 2, when McDougall received the necessary 57 votes on the first (23rd overall) ballot.[25]
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Connecticut
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One-term Republican Lafayette S. Foster was elected in 1854.
The Senate and the House of Representatives met separately on May 10, 1860, to hold an election for the next term. Foster defeated the Democratic candidate William W. Eaton on the first ballot.[26]
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Florida
One-term Democrat David L. Yulee was elected in 1855. He withdrew from the Senate on January 21, 1861, following the secession of Florida. The Florida Legislature did not hold an election for the next term, and the seat remained vacant until 1868.[27]
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Georgia
One-term Democrat Alfred Iverson was elected in 1854 or 1855. He withdrew from the Senate on January 28, 1861, following the secession of Georgia. The Georgia Legislature did not hold an election for the next term, and the seat remained vacant until 1871.[28]
Illinois
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One-term Republican Lyman Trumbull was elected in 1855.
The Illinois General Assembly met in joint session on January 10, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. Trumbull defeated the Democratic candidate Samuel S. Marshall on the first ballot.[29]
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Indiana
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Incumbent Democrat Graham N. Fitch was elected in 1857 following the failure of the legislature to elect a senator in 1855. He was not a candidate for re-election.[30]
The Indiana General Assembly met in joint session on January 16, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. The Republican governor of Indiana Henry S. Lane defeated the Democratic former governor Joseph A. Wright on the first ballot.[31] Wright was subsequently appointed to the other Indiana seat following the expulsion of Democrat Jesse D. Bright later in 1861. Lane's election elevated the lieutenant governor Oliver P. Morton to the governorship in accordance with an arrangement between the two men worked out in advance of the 1860 state elections.[32]
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Iowa
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One-term Republican James Harlan was re-elected in 1857 following the invalidation of his initial election in 1855.[33]
The Iowa General Assembly met in joint session on January 14, 1860, to hold an election for the next term. Harlan defeated the Democratic candidate Augustus C. Dodge on the first ballot.[34]
Kansas
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Kansas elected two senators following its admission on January 29, 1861.
The Kansas Legislature met in joint session on April 4, 1861, to hold elections for both seats. Members voted for two candidates, with the first and second-place finishers being elected.[35]
James H. Lane, Marcus J. Parrott, Samuel C. Pomeroy, and Frederick P. Stanton were the leading Republican candidates in a field that also included Mark W. Delahay and Thomas Ewing. Ewing withdrew prior to the election, while Delahay exerted little effort on his own behalf. The Kansas Democratic Party was hopelessly outnumbered in the legislature, and those Democrats like Archibald Williams and P. T. Abell who allowed their names to be mentioned did not seriously hope to be elected.[36]
Voting took place over two hours, with members switching their votes frequently as the fortunes of the candidates rose and fell.[37] Lane and Pomeroy had 55 and 52 votes, respectively, on the final tally and were pronounced elected.[38]
Kentucky
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Two elections were held in Kentucky, due to the election and subsequent expulsion of John C. Breckinridge.
Kentucky (regular)
Three-term American John J. Crittenden was re-elected in 1854. Crittenden had served previous non-consecutive terms from 1817 to 1819, from 1835 to 1841, and from 1842 to 1848.[39] He was not a candidate for re-election.
Linn Boyd, John C. Breckinridge, Elijah Hise, and John C. Mason were candidates for the Democratic nomination. A caucus of Democratic legislators selected Breckinridge on December 11, 1859, in advance of the election.[40]
The Kentucky General Assembly met in joint session on December 12, 1859, to hold an election for the next term, more than a year before the expiration of Crittenden's term.[41] Breckinridge defeated the Opposition candidate Joshua F. Bell on the first ballot.[42]
Kentucky (special)
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Breckinridge did not return to Washington when the Senate resumed session on December 2, 1861, having enlisted in the Confederate States Army.[43] He was expelled from Congress on December 4 for supporting the Confederacy.[44]
The Unionist members of the legislature held a caucus on December 10, 1861, in advance of the special election. Garrett Davis, James Guthrie, Joshua F. Bell, John J. Crittenden, Joseph R. Underwood, and Joseph Holt were candidates on the first ballot. Allies of Crittenden, now a U.S. representative, asked that his name be withdrawn from further consideration, for fear that a special election for his congressional seat could be won by a secessionist. The contest then narrowed to Bell, Davis, and Guthrie. After several rounds of voting yielded no result, Bell withdrew his candidacy; Davis defeated Guthrie on the 10th ballot with 65 votes to Guthrie's 64.[45]
The Kentucky General Assembly met on December 10, 1861, to hold a special election for the unexpired term. Voting proceeded separately in the Senate and the House of Representatives, after which the votes were tallied jointly.[46] Davis defeated the Southern Rights candidate William Johnson on the first ballot.[45]
Louisiana
One-term Democrat John Slidell was elected in 1854 or 1855. He withdrew from the Senate on February 4, 1861, following the secession of Louisiana. The Louisiana State Legislature did not hold an election for the next term, and the seat remained vacant until 1868.[47]
Maine (special)
Two-term Republican Hannibal Hamlin was re-elected in 1857. Hamlin was elected vice president in 1860 and resigned his Senate seat on January 7, 1861.[48]
The Senate and the House of Representatives met separately on January 9, 1861, to hold a special election for the unexpired term. The Republican candidate Lot M. Morrill defeated the Democratic candidate George F. Shepley on the first ballot.[49]
Maryland
Three-term Democrat James A. Pearce was re-elected in 1855.
The Maryland General Assembly met on March 2, 1860, to hold an election for the next term. Voting proceeded separately in the Senate and the House of Delegates, after which the tellers withdrew and to count the ballots in the Senate chamber.[50] Pearce defeated the American candidate James U. Dennis on the first ballot.[51]
Missouri
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One-term Democrat James S. Green was elected in 1857 following the failure of the legislature to elect a senator in 1855.[52]
Green's term expired on March 4, 1861. The Missouri General Assembly met in joint session on March 13 to hold an election for the next term. No candidate had a majority on the first ballot, necessitating several subsequent rounds of voting over the ensuing five days.[53]
Green, Constitutional Unionist Alexander W. Doniphan, and Douglas Democrats John S. Phelps and Thomas B. English were the leading candidates on the first ballot, with several other candidates polling between one and 10 votes. Green's secessionist, proslavery views were an issue during the election; supporters argued that failure to re-elect the incumbent would be interpreted as a concession to the abolitionist movement.[4][53]
Green's support dwindled over the first two days of balloting. On March 18, prior to the start of voting, his supporters withdrew his name in favor of Breckinridge Democrat Waldo P. Johnson, who was elected on the 15th ballot.[53]
Johnson, a secessionist, did not attend the 37th Congress when it convened on July 4, 1861. He was expelled from the Senate on January 10, 1862, for supporting the Confederacy. Robert Wilson, who received 10 votes as a Constitutional Unionist on the first ballot, was appointed to Johnson's vacant seat pending a special election in 1863.[54]
New Hampshire
Incumbent Republican Daniel Clark was elected in 1857 to fill the vacancy created by the death of James Bell.[55]
The Republican members of the New Hampshire General Court nominated Clark for re-election at their caucus on June 12, 1861, in advance of the election. The Democrats nominated John S. Wells.[56]
The Senate and the House of Representatives met separately on June 13, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. Clark defeated Wells on the first ballot.[57]
New York
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Two-term Republican William H. Seward was re-elected in 1855. He was not a candidate for re-election.[33]
The Senate and the Assembly met separately on February 5, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. The Republican candidate Ira Harris defeated the Democratic candidate Horatio Seymour on the first ballot.[58]
North Carolina
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Incumbent Democrat Thomas L. Clingman was elected in 1858 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Asa Biggs.[59]
Although it declined nationally after 1855, the Whig Party survived in North Carolina and contested the 1860 state elections under its former name.[60] Whigs elected 19 senators and 55 members of the House of Commons, holding the Democrats to narrow majorities in both chambers.[61]
Clingman, a former Whig from Western North Carolina, was by 1860 the leader of the state's secessionist Democrats. Unionists in the North Carolina Senate attempted to draft Democrat Bedford Brown, but he declined consideration. Opposition to Clingman was divided and distracted by the proposal to call a state convention to consider secession which had passed the legislature on January 29.[62]
The North Carolina General Assembly met on January 31, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. Voting proceeded separately in the Senate and the House of Commons, after which the votes were tallied jointly. Clingman and Whig Sion H. Rogers were nominated by members of the House of Commons, while Brown was nominated by the Senate.[63] Clingman defeated his various rivals on the first ballot.[64]
North Carolina seceded on May 20, 1861.[65] Clingman did not attend the 37th Congress when it convened on July 4 and was expelled on July 11 for supporting the Confederacy.[59]
Ohio
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Two elections were held in Ohio, due to the election and subsequent resignation of Salmon P. Chase.
Ohio (regular)
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One-term Democrat George E. Pugh was elected in 1854.[66]
The Ohio General Assembly met in joint session on February 3, 1860, to hold an election for the next term. The Republican candidate Salmon P. Chase defeated Pugh on the first ballot.[67]
Ohio (special)
Chase resigned from the Senate on March 6, 1861, following his appointment as U.S. secretary of the treasury.[66]
The Ohio General Assembly met in joint session on March 21 to hold a special election for the unexpired term. The Republican candidate John Sherman defeated the Democratic candidate William Kennon on the first ballot.[68]
Oregon
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There were two elections in Oregon, due to the vacancy of the Class 2 seat.
Democrats Joseph Lane and Delazon Smith were elected in 1858, Smith for the term ending March 3, 1859, and Lane for the term ending March 3, 1861. After the expiration of Smith's term, but before the 36th Congress convened, the governor of Oregon John Whiteaker called a special session of the Oregon Legislative Assembly in May 1859 to hold an election for the succeeding term. The Oregon Democratic Party was divided between partisans of Lane and Asahel Bush, who were identified with support or opposition to the Buchanan administration's policy on slavery in the U.S. territories, respectively. In the Democratic caucus, Smith, a Lane Democrat, was narrowly renominated with 22 out of 43 votes. The Bush Democrats subsequently refused to support Smith's re-election in the legislative joint session, and the legislature adjourned on July 4 without having elected a senator.[69]
In the interim, Lane was nominated for vice president by the Breckinridge Democratic National Convention; the Lane faction became identified with Breckinridge's presidential candidacy in Oregon, while the Anti-Lane forces supported Stephen Douglas. In elections held in June 1860, an ad-hoc Anti-Lane coalition of Republicans and Douglas Democrats handed a decisive defeat to the Lane faction, which was reduced to a minority in the legislature. Besides their shared hatred of Lane, both groups opposed the United States Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford and supported popular sovereignty. The election of an Anti-Lane majority cleared the way for a cooperation between Republicans and Douglas Democrats in the upcoming senatorial elections.[70]
The legislature met again in joint session on September 21, 1860, to hold concurrent elections for both seats.[71] The combined membership of both chambers included 19 Lane Democrats, 18 Douglas Democrats, and 13 Republicans. In an attempt to prevent a quorum in the Senate, six Lane Democrats absented themselves from the proceedings; during their absence, the House of Representatives attempted to conduct the election, but no candidate for either seat gained a majority over twenty ballots.[72]
At length, the absent senators were persuaded to return, and balloting resumed on October 1. A coalition between the Republicans and Douglas Democrats remained elusive until the following day, when Douglas Democrat James Nesmith and Republican Edward D. Baker were elected on the 14th (34th overall) ballot.
Oregon (regular)
The incumbent Lane was not a candidate for re-election. Republican Edward D. Baker, Douglas Democrat James Nesmith, and Breckinridge Democrats Delazon Smith and Matthew Deady were the major candidates.[73]
On October 2, Baker withdrew his candidacy for the Class 3 seat in order to seek election to the Class 2 seat. The Republican members switched their support to Nesmith, who was elected.[74]
Oregon (special)
The term of the previous incumbent Smith ended on March 4, 1859, after which the seat was vacant.[75]
Republican Amory Holbrook, Douglas Democrats George H. Williams and La Fayette Grover, and Breckinridge Democrat George L. Curry were the major candidates during the balloting on October 1.[76]
On October 2, the Republican members switched their votes from Holbrook to Baker, who had withdrawn his candidacy for the Class 3 seat. Fifteen Douglas Democrats joined the Republicans to elect Baker.[73] Holbrook, who thought fusion ill-advised and mistrusted Baker's Republican credentials, cast a blank ballot all through the voting on October 2.[77]
Pennsylvania
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There were two elections in Pennsylvania, due to the resignation of Simon Cameron.
Pennsylvania (regular)
One-term Democrat William Bigler was elected in 1856 following the failure of the legislature to elect a senator in 1855.[78]
The People's Party held a caucus on January 7, 1861, in advance of the election. Edgar Cowan and David Wilmot were the leading candidates. Wilmot was famous for his opposition to slavery in the U.S. territories and had the support of the incoming governor of Pennsylvania Andrew G. Curtin, but was opposed by conservative members who alleged his election would further antagonize the slave states. The junior U.S. senator from Pennsylvania Simon Cameron remained publicly neutral in the campaign for the Republican nomination while privately backing Cowan. In the caucus, Cowan defeated Wilmot on the sixth ballot with 58 votesto Wilmot's 38.[79]
The Democrats selected Henry D. Foster over the incumbent Bigler.[80]
The Pennsylvania General Assembly met in joint session on January 8, 1861, to hold an election for the next term. Cowan defeated Foster on the first ballot.[81]
Pennsylvania (special)
One-term People's incumbent Simon Cameron was elected in 1857. Cameron resigned from the Senate on March 4, 1861, following his appointment as U.S. secretary of war.[75]
Wilmot was nominated by the People's Party caucus on the first ballot with 76 votes to 21 for other candidates. The Democrats selected William H. Welsh after the frontrunner for the nomination, William H. Witte, withdrew.[82]
The Pennsylvania General Assembly met in joint session on March 14, 1861, to hold a special election for the unexpired term. Wilmot defeated Welsh on the first ballot.[83]
South Carolina
Incumbent Democrat James H. Hammond was elected in 1857 to fill the vacancy created by the death of Andrew Butler. He withdrew from the Senate on November 11, 1860, in anticipation of the secession of South Carolina. The South Carolina General Assembly did not hold an election for the next term, and the seat remained vacant until 1868.[84]
Vermont
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One-term Republican Jacob Collamer was elected in 1855.[85]
The Republican members of the legislature held a caucus on October 15, 1860, in advance of the election; Collamer was nominated unanimously on the first ballot.[86]
The Senate and the House of Representatives met separately on October 16, 1860, to hold an election for the next term.[87] Collamer defeated the Democratic candidate Paul Dillingham the first ballot.[86]
Virginia (special)
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Two special elections were held in Virginia, due to the expulsions of Robert M. T. Hunter and James M. Mason.
The Restored Virginia General Assembly met on July 9, 1861, to hold concurrent special elections for the unexpired terms. Voting proceeded separately in the Senate and the House of Delegates, after which the votes were tallied jointly. Waitman T. Willey and John S. Carlile were elected.[88]
Virginia (Class 1)
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Two-term Democrat James M. Mason was re-elected in 1856.[85] Mason did not attend the 37th Congress when it convened on July 4, 1861, and was expelled on July 11 for supporting the Confederacy.[89]
The Restored Virginia General Assembly met on July 9 to hold a special election for the unexpired term, anticipating Mason's expulsion. Unionist Waitman T. Willey defeated Peter G. Van Winkle and Daniel Lamb on the first ballot.[90]
Virginia (Class 2)
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Three-term Democrat Robert M. T. Hunter was re-elected in 1858.[85] Hunter did not attend the 37th Congress when it convened on July 4, 1861, and was expelled on July 11 for supporting the Confederacy.[89]
The Restored Virginia General Assembly met on July 9 to hold a special election for the unexpired term, anticipating Hunter's expulsion. Unionist John S. Carlile was elected unanimously on the first ballot.[90]
Wisconsin
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One-term Republican Charles Durkee was elected in 1855. He was not a candidate for re-election.[91]
The Republican members of the legislature held a caucus from January 17–22, 1861, in advance of the election. Timothy O. Howe, Cadwallader C. Washburn, and Alexander W. Randall were the leading candidates. Voting continued for several days with no result. Randall eventually withdrew his candidacy in favor of Howe, who defeated Washburn on the final ballot with 52 votes to 36 for Washburn, and three abstentions.[92]
The Wisconsin Legislature met in joint session on January 23, 1861, to hold an election for the next term.[93] Howe defeated the Democratic candidate Henry L. Palmer on the first ballot.[92]
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