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Alp Arslan
Sultan of the Seljuk Empire from 1063 to 1072 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Alp Arslan, born Muhammad Alp Arslan bin Dawud Chaghri,[4] was the second sultan of the Seljuk Empire and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponymous founder of the dynasty and the empire. He greatly expanded Seljuk territories and consolidated his power, defeating rivals to the south, east and northwest. His victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 ushered in the Turkoman settlement of Anatolia.[5]
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Early life
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Historical sources differ about Alp Arslan's birth date. Some 12th- and 13th-century sources give 1032/1033 as his birth year, while later sources give 1030. According to İbrahim Kafesoğlu, the most likely date is 20 January 1029 (1 Muharram 420 AH), recorded by the medieval historian Ibn al-Athir.[3] He was the son of Chaghri and nephew of Tughril, the founding sultans of the Seljuk Empire. His grandfather was Mikail, who in turn was the son of the warlord Seljuk. He was the father of numerous children, including Malik-Shah I and Tutush I.[6] It is unclear who the mother or mothers of his children were. He was known to have been married at least twice. His wives included the widow of his uncle Tughril, a Kara-Khanid princess known as Aka or Seferiye Khatun, and the daughter or niece of Bagrat IV of Georgia (who would later marry his vizier, Nizam al-Mulk).[7] One of Seljuk's other sons was the Turkic chieftain Arslan Isra'il, whose son, Kutalmish, contested his nephew's succession to the sultanate. Alp Arslan's younger brothers Suleiman ibn Chaghri and Qavurt were his rivals. Kilij Arslan, the son and successor of Suleiman ibn Kutalmish (Kutalmish's son, who would later become Sultan of Rûm), was a major opponent of the Franks during the First Crusade and the Crusade of 1101.[8]
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Campaigns and Battles
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Alp Arslan accompanied his uncle Tughril on campaigns in the south against the Fatimids while his father Chaghri remained in Khorasan. Upon Alp Arslan's return to Khorasan, he began his work in administration at his father's suggestion. While there, his father introduced him to Nizam al-Mulk, one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history and Alp Arslan's future vizier.[10]
Defense of Tokharistan (1043–44)
Taking advantage of the illness of the governor of Khorasan Chaghri, the Ghaznavid Sultan Mawdud attacked the Tokharistan region held by the Seljuks with the Ghaznavid army.[11] Alp Arslan, who was in the city of Balkh at the time, defeated the Ghaznavids.[12][13] A subsequent Ghaznavid attack was also repelled. The defeated Ghaznavids retreated, abandoning the places they had captured.[14]
Campaign of Karakhanids
A few years after Mawdud of Ghazni suffered a major defeat against the Seljuks in Tokharistan, he called on the Kara-khanids and the Buyids to form an alliance against the Seljuks. The Kara-khanids and the Buyids accepted Mawdud's offer of an alliance. Later, the alliance forces took action to unite their armies. Mawdud also set out with his army to meet the Buyid and Karakhanid armies. However, Mawdud fell ill on the way to the meeting place, and the Ghaznavid army was forced to turn back. The Buyid army also set out from Isfahan to the meeting place, but when they passed Tabas and entered the desert, an epidemic broke out in the Buyid army. In this epidemic, the commander of the Buyid army also fell ill, and the army suffered great losses. Thereupon, the Buyids turned back.[15][16] Unaware of what had happened, the Kara-khanid ruler Arslan Khan first went to Termez and plundered the city. When Alp Arslan learned that the Kara-khanid ruler Arslan Khan had attacked Termez, he went on an expedition against him and in the battle that ensued between the two sides, Arslan Khan was defeated.[17] The defeated Arslan Khan was forced to retreat and went to the banks of the Amu Darya River.[18] He then decided to make a peace offer to the Seljuks. When Chaghri Beg heard about this peace offer, he met with the Karakhanid ruler Arslan Khan with his soldiers. As a result of this meeting, peace was made between the Seljuk Empire and the Kara-Khanid Khanate.[19][20]
Raid of Fasa
While Tughril I was busy with the Siege of Isfahan (1050-51), Alp Arslan attacked the city of Fasa[21] belonging to the Buyids with his army without the knowledge of his uncle Tughril and captured the city.[22] He then returned to Khorasan to avoid falling under the command of his uncle Tughril.[23]
Defense of Khorasan (1056)
Taking advantage of the internal turmoil in the Ghaznavid Empire, the Seljuks organized an expedition to Ghazna and the army under the command of Chaghri advanced as far as Bust.[24] The Ghaznavids, who solved the problems, enthroned Farrukh-Zad. Farrukh-Zad sent his commander named Hirhiz against Chaghri. Hirhiz defeated Chaghri and attacked Khorasan, defeating and capturing Gul-Sarygh and other Seljuk commanders.[25] Thereupon, Alp Arslan received permission from his father to organize an attacked to Ghaznavids and defeated the Ghaznavids under the command of Hirhiz.[26]
Battle of Rey (1059)
As a result of the rebellion of Ibrahim Yinal, the Seljuk Sultan Tughril I, who was in a difficult situation, asked for help from his brother Chaghri. Chaghri responded to this request for help by sending an army under the command of his sons Alp Arslan, Qavurt and Yakuti.[27] The army under the command of Ibrahim Yinal, Ibrahim Yinal's nephews Mehmed and Ahmed and the army under the command of Alp Arslan, Qavurt and Yakuti encountered near Rey.[28] Ibrahim Yinal and his nephews, who lost the battle near Rey, were taken prisoner.[29]
Campaign of Khuttal (1063)
Upon receiving news of the rebellion of the Khuttal Emir, Alp Arslan set out on an expedition against Khuttal. The Seljuk army under the command of Alp Arslan laid siege to the Hulbuk Castle,[30] the center of Khuttal.[31] The Hulbuk Castle was built on a mountain and the castle was fortified, which caused the first attacks to be ineffective. Later, as a result of an attack in which Alp Arslan also participated, the Khuttal Emir was killed. Later, the Hulbuk Castle was captured by the Seljuks. Alp Arslan appointed one of his own men as emir to Khuttal.[32][33][34]
Battle of Herat (1063)
After the death of Tughril, Musa Yabghu captured Herat, which was under the rule of Alp Arslan,[35] and rebelleion.[36] In the meantime, Alp Arslan, who was dealing with the rebellion of the Khatlon emir, suppressed this rebellion and defeated the Khatlon emir, and then went on an expedition against Musa Yabghu.[37] In the battle between the two armies near Herat, Musa Yabghu was defeated. Alp Arslan regained control of Herat and spared the life of Musa Yabghu, who was taken prisoner.[38][39]
Campaign of Chaghaniyan
After Alp Arslan suppressed Musa Yabghu's rebellion, he marched against Emir Musa, who rebelled in Chaghaniyan.[40] Emir Musa was defeated and captured in the battle near Chaghaniyan.[41] Later, the Seljuk army captured Chaghaniyan Castle.[42] After suppressing this rebellion, Alp Arslan advanced towards Ray with his army.[43]
Battle of Damghan and Alp Arslan's accession to the throne
After the death of his father, Alp Arslan succeeded him as governor of Khorasan in 1059. His uncle Tughril died in 1063 and designated his successor as Suleiman, Alp Arslan's infant brother. Alp Arslan and his uncle Kutalmish both contested this succession which was resolved at the battle of Damghan in 1063. Alp Arslan defeated Kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 April 1064 as sultan of the Seljuk Empire, thus becoming the sole monarch of Seljuk Empire from the river Oxus to the Tigris.
Campaign of Northwest (1064)
In 1064 he led a campaign in northwestern[44] Along with Nizam al-Mulk and Malik-Shah I[45] he then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064.[46] Alp Arslan and Malik-Shah I captured the regions between Tbilisi and the Çoruh river, many cities and castles,[47] especially Akhalkalaki, Alaverdi, Byurakan (Anberd), Surmari and Meryemnişin.[48][49] Alp Arslan went on an expedition to Anatolia and Subizshahr, Akkent, Ağcakale and surrounding Anatolian castles were captured.[50] Ani, the most fortified castle of the Byzantine Empire, was besieged. The city of Ani was defended by two Byzantine generals, Duke Bagrat and Gregor.[51] After a siege of 25 days, the Seljuks captured Ani, the capital city of Armenia.[52] After the Seljuks captured Ani, Kars surrendered to the Seljuks and was thus taken without a fight.[53] An account of the sack and massacres in Ani is given by the historian Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, who quotes an eyewitness saying:
The army entered the city, massacred its inhabitants, pillaged and burned it, leaving it in ruins and taking prisoner all those who remained alive... The dead bodies were so many that they blocked the streets; one could not go anywhere without stepping over them. And the number of prisoners was not less than 50,000 souls. I was determined to enter the city and see the destruction with my own eyes. I tried to find a street in which I would not have to walk over the corpses, but that was impossible.[54]
Rebellion of Qavurt (1064)
Alp Arslan, who was in Anatolia, ended his Campaign of Northwest in 1064 when he received news of the rebellion of his brother Qavurt,[55] the prince of Kerman, and first went to his capital Ray and then to Hamadan. When Alp Arslan arrived in Hamadan, Qavurt sent an ambassador and asked for forgiveness. Despite his mistake, he forgave Qavurt and allowed him to remain the prince of Kerman.[56]
Campaign of Ustyurt and Mangyshlak (1065)
In 1065, Alp Arslan went on an expedition to the Ustyurt and Mangyshlak regions with a Seljuk army of 30,000-men.[57][58] He defeated the Turkmen, Kipchak and Jazeks forces.[59] Then he defeated the 30,000 men Kipchak army under the command of Kafshud.[60] Alp Arslan made conquests in Transoxiana and conquered Khwarezm.[61] Alp Arslan later visited the grave of his grandfather Seljuk in Jand and attributed it to the lands ruled by his son Malik-Shah I. As a result of this expedition of Alp Arslan, the lands from the Caspian Sea to Tashkent came under the rule of the Seljuk Empire.[62]
Rebellion of Qavurt (1067)
Alp Arslan went on a campaign against Qavurt, who rebelled again in 1067.[63] Qavurt again asked for forgiveness after the army he sent was defeated by Alp Arslan's vanguard. Alp Arslan forgave him and left him as the prince of Kerman.[64]
Campaign of Georgia (1068)
Bagrat IV agreed to pay jizya to the Seljuks in 1064,[65] but the Georgians broke the agreement in 1065.[66] Alp Arslan invaded Georgia again in 1068. He captured Tbilisi, Kartli, Shirak, Vanand, Gugark, Arran, Ganja[67] and Kars[68] after a short battle and obtained the submission of Bagrat IV; However, the Georgians were liberated from Seljuk rule around 1073-1074 after Alp Arslan died.[66][69] As a result of the campaigns carried out during the reign of Malik-Shah I, Georgia became a invaded of the Seljuk Empire again.[70][71]
Fall of Caesarea Mazaca
In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions, Alp Arslan was ably assisted by Nizam al-Mulk, and the two are credited with helping to stabilize the empire after the death of Tughril. With peace and security established in his dominions, Alp Arslan convoked an assembly of the states, and in 1066, he declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor.[72] With the hope of capturing Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkoman[73] cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and invaded the city.
Campaign of Northern Syria and Anatolia
In 1070, the emirs of Mecca and Medina came under the rule of the Seljuk Empire. After Mecca and Medina came under Seljuk Empire rule, the Fatimid Vizier Nasr-Dawla asked for help from Alp Arslan against the Fatimids. Alp Arslan moved with his army upon the call for help and entered Anatolia via Azerbaijan.[74] Alp Arslan first captured the castles of Manzikert and Erciş. Later, he went down to the Silvan and Diyarbekir (Amid) regions and made the emirs there his vassals of Seljuk Empire, then he came to Edessa and besieged the city.[75] When the siege was prolonged, he lifted the siege by receiving a tribute of 50,000 dinars.[76] He advanced to Aleppo, which was in the hands of the Mirdasids, and captured the Byzantine castles on his way. When he arrived in Aleppo, he laid siege to the city due to the disobedience of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo.[77] Realizing that the city would fall, Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud came to Alp Arslan, apologized and became his vassal. Later, as Egypt was preparing to advance, the Byzantine envoy arrived and Alp Arslan turned his attention to Manzikert.[78]
Battle of Manzikert (1071)
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En route to fight the Fatimids in Syria in 1068, Alp Arslan invaded the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, assuming command in person, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the Turks were defeated in detail and driven across the Euphrates in 1070. The first two campaigns were conducted by the emperor himself, while the third was directed by Manuel Komnenos, the brother of future emperor Alexios I Komnenos. During this time, Alp Arslan gained the allegiance of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo.
In 1071, Romanos again took the field and advanced into Armenia with possibly 30,000 men, including a contingent of Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul. Alp Arslan, who had moved his troops south to fight the Fatimids, quickly reversed to meet the Byzantines.[80] When Alp Arslan arrived in Silvan and learned that Romanos Diogenes had captured Manzikert, he set out towards Ahlat.[81] The two armies met at the Rahve Plain near Manzikert.[82] Alp Arslan sent a final ambassador to the Romanos IV Diogenes, offering a peace deal. The Romanos IV Diogenes rejected the peace deal, whereupon Alp Arslan put his army in battle formation and placed some of his cavalry in ambush along the valley. Alp Arslan placed the 4,000-man force he would command in the center line. On the Byzantine side, Emperor Romanos Diogenes also put his army in battle formation. Both armies made their final preparations on August 25.[83] Before the battle on August 26, Alp Arslan gave the following speech to his army:
I want to attack the enemy at this hour when Muslims are praying for us in mosques. If we win, the result we desire will be achieved, if we are defeated, we will go to heaven as martyrs. Today, there is neither a sultan giving orders nor a soldier taking orders; I will fight with you as one of you; those who want to come with me can follow me, those who do not want to can freely return.[84][85]
On August 26, the Battle of Manzikert began with a Seljuk attack.[86] The central army under the command of Alp Arslan attacked the numerically superior Byzantine army and after a while retreated due to war tactics. The central army led by the Byzantine emperor Romanus Diogenes started to follow the Seljuk army and when they reached the ambush point, the army under the command of Alp Arslan turned towards the Byzantine army and other Seljuk soldiers emerged from the hills where they were hiding and surrounded the Byzantine army.[87] The Byzantine army, which fell into the ambush set by the Seljuks, was defeated and for the first time in history, a Byzantine emperor was taken prisoner by a Turkish and Muslim commander.[88][89] The Byzantines were wholly routed.
Emperor Romanos himself was captured in battle and presented to Alp Arslan. It is reported that upon seeing the Roman emperor, the sultan leaped from his throne, commanded Romanos to kiss the ground, and stepped on his neck. He repeatedly berated the emperor, including for spurning his emissaries and offers of peace. Romanos remained unrepentant, asserting that he had merely done what was "possible for a man, and which kings are bound to do, and I have fallen short in nothing. But God has fulfilled his will. And now, do what you wish and abandon recriminations."[91] Purportedly declaring Romanos "too trivial... to kill", Alp Arslan then led him about the camp to sell the prisoner to one of his men. The Seljuk soldiers initially refused to spend any money on buying the emperor, until one man traded a dog for him.[91] Next, wishing to test Romanos, Alp Arslan asked Romanos what he would do if their situation were reversed and Alp Arslan was imprisoned by the Byzantines. Romanos bluntly answered "The worst!" His honesty impressed Alp Arslan, who then decided to spare Romanos's life and instead ransom him back to his homeland. After agreeing on a ransom, Alp Arslan sent Romanos to Constantinople with a Turkish escort, carrying a banner above the disgraced emperor that read: "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger".[91]
The reason Alp Arslan spared Romanos was likely to avoid a two-front war. The Fatimids were launching devastating raids on the Seljuk domains during this period, Alp Arslan may have worried that executing the Roman emperor might escalate his conflict with the Byzantines. Romanos himself had told the sultan that "killing me will not be of any use to you".[92]
After hearing of the death of Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, Sultan Alp Arslan pledged: "The Byzantine nation has no God, so this day the oath of peace and friendship taken by both the Persians and Byzantines is nullified; henceforth I shall consume with the sword all those people who venerate the cross, and all the lands of the Christians shall be enslaved."[93]
Alp Arslan and his successor Malik Shah urged Turkish tribes to invade and settle Anatolia where they would not only cease to be a problem for the Seljuk Sultanate but also extend its territory further. Alp Arslan commanded the Turks as follows:
Henceforth all of you be like lion cubs and eagle young, racing through the countryside day and night, slaying the Christians and not sparing any mercy on the Roman nation.[94][95]
Alp Arslan's victories changed the balance in western Asia completely in favor of the Seljuq Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly four more centuries, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkic ascendancy in Anatolia.[5] The victory at Manzikert became so popular among the Turks that later every noble family in Anatolia claimed to have had an ancestor who had fought on that day.[96]
Campaign of Turkestan (1072)
Alp Arslan launched an expedition to Turkestan in 1072 with an army of 200,000. The reason for this expedition was that the Seljuk Dynasty's son-in-law, Shams al-Mulk, killed his wife, that is, Alp Arslan's daughter (some sources say she was his sister).[97] Alp Arslan entered the Karakhanid lands with his army. Alp Arslan and his army came to the front of Barzem Castle without encountering any resistance and attacks and surrounded the castle. After a while, the castle, unable to withstand the siege, surrendered. The castle commander Yusuf al-Kharezmi[98] came to the Alp Arslan and stabbed him and seriously wounded him. Alp Arslan held out for four days and died.[99]
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State organization
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Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization that characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military iqtas, governed by Seljuq princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Anatolian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians, Turks, and other established cultures within the Seljuq realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiers. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars.
Suleiman ibn Qutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces and assigned to complete the invasion of Anatolia. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir's account of the battle between Alp-Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp-Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman.
Physical appearance and personality
Contemporary descriptions portray Alp Arslan as "very awe-inspiring, dominating," a "great-formed one, elegant of stature. He had long, thin whiskers, which he used to knot up when shooting arrows. And they say his arrow never went astray.... From the top button of his hat to the end of his moustaches it was two yards".[100]
Muslim sources show Alp Arslan as fanatically pious but just. Alp Arslan was so dedicated to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence that he always kept a qadi by his side, including in battles.[101] His vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, described the young sultan in his Book of Government:[102]
He was exceedingly imperious and awe-inspiring and, because he was so earnest and fanatical in his beliefs and disapproved of the Shafi‘i rite, I lived in constant fear of him.
Some authors have doubted whether the Turks, who had adopted Islam recently, completely understood such religious distinctions. Alex Mallett writes, "Whatever the case, the fact that almost all writers have good things to say about him suggests that he treated everyone more or less equally, in religious terms."[103]
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Death
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After Manzikert, the dominion of Alp Arslan extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march for the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army, he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river safely, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the rebel, Yusuf al-Kharezmi or Yusuf al-Harani. Perhaps over-eager to press on against his Qarakhanid enemy, Alp Arslan gained the governor's submission by promising the rebel 'perpetual ownership of his lands'. When he was produced a captive in the royal tent, the sultan, instead of praising his valor, severely reproached his obstinate folly: and the insolent replies of the rebel provoked a sentence, that he should be fastened to four stakes, and left to expire in that painful situation. At this command, the desperate Yusuf al-Kharezmi, drawing a dagger, rushed headlong towards the throne: the guards raised their battle-axes; their zeal was checked by Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of the age: he drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received in his breast the dagger of Yusuf al-Kharezmi, who was instantly cut in pieces.
The wound was mortal; and the Turkish sultan bequeathed a dying admonition to the pride of kings. "In my youth," said Alp Arslan, "I was advised by a sage to humble before God; to distrust my own strength; and never to despise the most contemptible foe. I have neglected these lessons; and my neglect has been deservedly punished. Yesterday, as from an eminence I beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit, of my armies, the earth seemed to tremble under my feet; and I said in my heart, Surely thou art the king of the world, the greatest and most invincible of warriors. These armies are no longer mine; and, in the confidence of my personal strength, I now fall by the hand of an assassin." Four days later on 24 November 1072, Alp Arslan died and was buried at Merv, having designated his 18-year-old son Malik Shah as his successor.[104]
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Family
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One of his wives was Safariyya Khatun.[105] She had a daughter,[106] Sifri Khatun,[107] who in 1071–72, married Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadi.[106][108] Safariyya died in Isfahan in 1073–74.[108] Another of his wives was Akka Khatun. She had been formerly the wife of Sultan Tughril. Alp Arslan married her after Tughril's death in 1063.[108] Another of his wives was Shah Khatun. She was the daughter of Qadir Khan Yusuf, and had been formerly married to Ghaznavid Mas'ud I.[106][108][109]
Another wife was Ummu Hifchaq also known as Ummu Qipchaq.[110] Another of his wives was the daughter of King of Tashir Kiurike I, who was married to the sister of the Georgian king Bagrat IV. Alp Arslan divorced her, and married her to Nizam al-Mulk.[111] His sons were Malik-Shah I, Tutush I, Arslan Shah, Tekish,[112] Toghan-Shah,[113] Ayaz and Buibars.[106] One of his daughters married the son of Kurd Surkhab, son of Bard in 1068.[108]
Another daughter, Zulaikha Khatun, was married to a Muslim, son of Quraish in 1086–87.[108] Another daughter, Aisha Khatun, married Shams al-Mulk Nasr, son of Ibrahim Khan Tamghach.[108] Another daughter was married to Mas'ud III of Ghazni and was his first wife.[114][115] Another daughter was Sara Khatun.[106] Son of Alp Arslan's sister, Dev Ali Beg (Devle Beg) was a royal military general who played a key role in the conquest of Kayseri and gave his name to Develi district of Kayseri. His tribal family later became known as "Develioğlu" (meaning "son of Develi").[116]
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Legacy
Alp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the Crusades.
From 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan.
The 2nd Training Motorized Rifle Division of the Turkmen Ground Forces is named in his honor.
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