Babak Khorramdin Revolt

Babak Khorramdin Revolt (Persian: شورش بابک خرمدين ; Arabic: ثَوْرَةُ بَابَكْ الخُرَّمِيِّ) was a series of uprisings by Babak Khorramdin, who led the Khurramite movement between the years of 816CE–837CE after Javidhan. It was one of the largest Persian uprisings against the Abbasid Caliphate. It occurred during the reigns of Al-Ma'mun and Al-Mu'tasim, lasting for 20 years. The uprising was suppressed and the Abbasids captured and executed Babak.

Babak Khorramdin Revolt
Part of the Persian Rebellions against the Caliphate
Babak Khorramdin in negotiations with Al-Afshin
Date 816CE–837CE Location Northwestern Iran, Iranian Azerbaijan Result Abbasid victory[a] Suppression of the uprisings The destruction of Babak Fort[3] Capture and execution of Babak Khorramdin Territorial changes Abbasids reassert control over Azerbaijan and other surroundings after suppressing the revolt
Belligerents
Abbasid Caliphate	Khurramite Movement
Commanders and leaders
Before Babak: Harun al-Rashid Abdallah ibn Malik Al-Ma'mun Al-Mu'tasim Al-Afshin Ishaq ibn Ibrahim Bugha al-Kabir[b] Muhammad bin Humayd al-Tusi † Abu Sa'id Muhammad ibn yusuf Abu Dulaf al-Ijli	Babak Khorramdin  Ishmah al-Kurdi  Mu'awiya Ali ibn Mazdak
Strength
Unknown	100,000–200,000 rebels (Probably Exaggeration)[c]
Casualties and losses
High casualties (Exaggeration)[d]	Up to 100,000–230,000 rebels killed[e]

Background

The Khurramites under Babak's leadership, proclaimed the division and the redistribution of the great estates and the end to the despotic foreign rule. Taking advantage of the turmoil created by the Abbasid Civil War, they began making attacks on Muslim forces in 816 in Iran and Iraq. Babak's rise to the leadership of the Khurramites began when Javidhan ibn Sahl enlisted the help of a young man of illegitimate birth named Babak, appointing him to manage his local estate. Babak not only initiated an affair with Javidhan's wife, but when his master died during a clash, he seized control of the Khurramite movement, claiming that Javidhan's spirit had passed to him. It was in 201/816-17 that Babak was first recorded as the leader of the Khurramites.^[10] The Khurramites opposed Muslims, particularly Arabs.^[11] Babak's revolt proved exceptionally difficult to resolve. Azerbaijan presented unique difficulties for Abbasid control. The region had experienced limited Arab presence compared to other conquered territories. Initial Muslim expansion into the area focused primarily on securing strategic positions in the flatlands through fortified bases, with settlements like Bardha'a, Ardabil, and Maragheh, the latter functioning as the administrative center when Babak launched his campaign. Instead of imposing direct administration, Muslim forces had established agreements with mountain communities that preserved local self-governance in return for token payments. This cooperative system began unraveling during the early Abbasid period as demographic pressures increased. Growing numbers of settlers from Mosul moved into the lowland areas while simultaneously pursuing mining opportunities in the highland territories.^[12] Babak's revolt was based in Badhdh, a city located in the mountainous region south of the Araxes river, situated between Ardabil and Ahar. This insurrection was linked to the Khurramite religious sect and represented more of a local resistance movement by native populations defending their territory from Islamic conquest rather than a direct challenge to existing governmental structures.^[13] Babak organized local mountain communities in opposition to the increasing encroachment of the Abbasid territorial pressure from southern territories. This resistance took place in the Elburz mountain range near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea.^[14] The Khurramites seized control of Azerbaijan and other regions, seeking to restore the faith to Mazdakism. From his mountain fortress capital al-Badhdh (located just south of the Aras river in modern Qarāja-dāḡ), Babak sent his forces westward to Armenia, eastward to Khorasan. Northern Azerbaijan was the epicenter of this prolonged rebellion.^[3][15] The Abbasids during the reign of al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim launched a major expedition against Babak's rebellion across the mountainous areas of Azerbaijan. These highland areas had remained largely independent from Muslim control until the Abbasid army made a determined effort to pacify the mountain inhabitants.^[16] the Khurramites were aided by the inaccessible mountains of the province and the absence of large Arab Muslim population centres, except for a few cities in the lowlands. Al-Ma'mun had left the local Muslims largely to their own devices. A succession of military commanders attempted to subdue the rebellion on their own initiative, and thus gain control of the country's newly discovered mineral resources, only to be defeated by the Khurramites under the capable leadership of Babak.^[17] al-Mu'tasim's first major campaign of the new reign was directed against the Khurramites in Adharbayjan and Arran.^[18]

Abbasid campaigns against the Khurramite movement

Harun Al-Rashid's campaigns (before Babak)

In (807CE) The Caliph Harun al-Rashid Dispatched Abdallah ibn Malik al-Khuza'i to fight against the Khurramites in Azerbaijan, He captured and enslaved many of them, Harun ordered the execution of the prisoners and the sale of the captives.^[19] In the same year, 807, Harun al-Rashid died while traveling to Khorasan. During this time, the Khurramites rebelled in many villages around Isfahan and mountainous regions including Rayy, Hamadan, Karaj, and Dastaba. A major uprising occurred in Azerbaijan, where many women and children were enslaved and reportedly 30,000 men were killed. It was said that they took advantage of Harun's death as an opportunity to cause these rebellions.^[9] The Abbasids successfully Suppressed the rebellions.

Al-Ma'mun's campaigns

The khurramites Rebelled against the Caliphate for the third time in (212AH/827CE) at Isfahan,^[9] In response, Al-Ma'mun dispatched several commanders to defeat Babak. He sent Khorasani Iranian commanders such as Yahya ibn Mu'adh al-Razi, A veteran who fought against Babak unsuccessfully in 201/816-17.^[10] In the next year Al-Ma'mun then sent another commander, Mohammed bin Abi Khalid, a Khorasani Iranian who was also defeated by Babak.^[11] Later Al-Ma'mun dispatched a Khorasani Arab commander called Muhammad bin Humayd al-Tusi to Azerbaijan. Muhammad's first mission was to Defeat one of Babak's allies named Zurayq. After eliminating Zurayq Muhammad ibn Humayd turned his attention to Babak. In 212/827, he arrived in Azerbaijan and deceptively summoned twenty-six regional leaders under the pretense of seeking military advice, then had them arrested and imprisoned in Dinawar on the caliph's orders. The following year, Muhammad launched a systematic campaign against Babak, establishing supply lines and fortified positions while advancing northward from Maragha. His forces included local Arabs, volunteers from Azerbaijan and Mosul, and irregular troops. However, in 213/828, Babak's forces outmaneuvered Muhammad's army in a mountain engagement, resulting in a decisive defeat and Muhammad's death in battle. This engagement ended al-Ma'mun's attempts to suppress Babak's rebellion.^[20][21]

Al-Mu'tasim’s first campaign and The Great Revolt

Babak's influence was expanding until the reign of al-Mu'tasim, during which the Khurramites gained strength and reached the al-Jibal region. it was marked as the fourth rebellion of the Khurramites in (833CE/218AH), and is considered one of the major uprisings known as "The Great Revolt ". Many people from Isfahan, Hamadan, Masabadhan, Mihrajanqadhaq, including the two Māhs (Nihawand, Dinawar) and some people of Fars among other regions joined the movement, they adopted the Khurramite beliefs and were operating under Babak's direction. They caused various actions including killing Tax collectors, Robbing Travellers, and slaughtering Muslims. The Khurramite rebels in Fars were defeated by the Caliphal forces. Later the Khurramites launched a campaign in the lead of Ali ibn Mazdak capturing Karaj, the centre of the local ruler of Abu Dulaf al-Ijli in Isfahan, It was said that Abu dulaf was away with his troops during the Engagement and it's likely that he didn't know or notice the Khurramite attack. According to Tarikhnama babak sent supplies to al-Jibal, And according to al-Ya'qubi The Khurramites managed to defeat the first army in the lead of Hashim bin Batijur, that was the first army sent by Al-Mu'tasim. Then later Al-Mu'tasim dispatched the Governor of baghdad Ishaq ibn Ibrahim al-Mus'abi, Ishaq led a ruthless campaign and dealt a decisive blow to the Khurramites, resulting in a brutal suppression of the Khurramite Rebellion, killing 60,000 to 100,000 Khurramites, The remaining of the Rebels that survived the ruthless campaign escaped to the Byzantine territories,^[22][7][23] The survivors converted to Christianity, later they joined the imperial army. it was said that the person who led those survivors to the Byzantine lands was named "Nusayr" who was later known as Theophobos.^[7] It was said that the engagement between Ishaq and the Khurramites took place near the district of Hamadan. After sending a victory dispatch in December 833, he returned to Iraq in May 834, bringing with him a large number of captives and individuals who had received guarantees of safe conduct.^[24]

Al-Mu'tasim’s second campaign and downfall of Babak

During this period, al-Mu'tasim appointed the Persian general Afshin to lead the campaign against Babak and oversee the region of al-Jibal. Before Afshin's departure, the caliph had sent a group under "Abu Sa'id Muhammad ibn yusuf" to rebuild the forts demolished by Babak between Zanjan and Ardabil. The Khurramites, led by Mu'awiya, made a failed attack on the Arabs that was marked as Babak's defeat.^[25] Meanwhile, Muhammad ibn al-Ba'ith, the ruler of Shahi fortress and the citadel of Tabriz in Azerbaijan, was initially allied with Babak, providing a full support and supplies for Babak's troops. However, when an Abbasid army approached in 220/835, he changed and pledged allegiance to Caliph Al-Mu'tasim, using the opportunity to consolidate his control over Marand. As part of this, he trapped the Khurramite leader, Isma al-Kurdi, he got all his men and companions drunk, Killed them, and captured isma. He transferred Isma to a fortress near Lake Urmia, later sending him to the caliph, who questioned him to learn about the pathways and military positions in Azerbaijan. After Babak's defeat, Ibn al-Ba'ith was later imprisoned in Samarra.^[26]

In 220/835, Caliph al-Mu‘tasim assigned his top general, Al-Afshin, to lead the campaign against Babak Khorramdin. As part of a broader strategy, Muhammad b. Yusuf al-Thaghri was dispatched to Ardabil to rebuild the fortresses between Ardabil and Zanjan and to establish garrisons and secure the supply routes. Al-Afshin began his campaign by clearing the Jibal region of rebellious local lords and fortified the road from Ardabil to Barzand with garrisons and defensive trenches to protect supply caravans. Operating from his base in Barzand, he engaged in systematic intelligence gathering and advanced with extreme caution–moving his camp only four miles a day and protecting it with trenches and scattered iron spikes to avoid ambushes. By March 221/836, he had reached a position just six miles from Badhdh, Babak's fortified base. Though he scored several victories over Babak, he also suffered several setbacks. Al-Afshin succeeded in drawing Babak into the open. In 222/837, after prolonged preparation and steady progress, he stormed al-Badhdh. delivering a decisive blow to the Khurramite revolt and marketing the collapse of the Khurramite Resistance.^[27][28]

Capture of Babak

After the destruction of Babak's stronghold (al-Badhdh) in 837, he retreated westward with a few of his companions and looked for sanctuary with the Armenian Noble Sahl Smbatean. Babak requested that his brother be sheltered apart by another Armenian noble, trying to ensure safety. However, the plan was unsuccessful.^[27] Though Babak formed a temporary alliance with Armenian nobles, these relationships were often fragile and self-interested. Eventually, Sahl handed Babak over to the Abbasids. By surrendering him to the caliphal forces, Sahl aimed to regain favour at the Abbasid leadership. This incident marked the end of Babak's resistance.^[29] Sahl had abused Babak's mother, sister, and wife in Babak's presence, that happened before turning them all over to the caliph.^[30] This act was meant to symbolically and politically disgrace Babak, portraying him as morally and militarily defeated.

Babak's tragic end, involving Sahl's betrayal and his brutal execution, reflected the belief that Babak had claimed higher status than he deserved. Sahl allegedly mocked him during the betrayal, saying:

"You are just a herder of cows and sheep. What have you got to do with kingship, political decisions, or armies?"^[31]

This was viewed as the ultimate humiliation: an aristocrat reasserting his authority over a false claimant. Both Babak and his brother were subsequently delivered to the Abbasid forces.^[27]

Execution of Babak and Aftermath

Afshin, upon the camel, parades Babak, upon the elephant, into Samarra. Persian miniature created in 16th-century Safavid Iran, from a copy of Abu Ali Bal'ami's 10th-century Tarikhnama

Babak was eventually seized by Al-Afshin and handed over to the Abbasid Caliph on 3 January 838 in Samarra. Before his execution, he was paraded through Baghdad on an elephant decorated with ornate coverings, wearing ceremonial clothing consisting of a short silk jacket and sable fur hat, with a placard listing his crimes displayed for all to see. He was led between military formations along the main thoroughfare, observed by onlookers, until reaching the palace's public reception chamber where the caliph awaited.In an ironic turn, the caliph ordered that Babak's own former executioner, called Nudnud, should carry out the execution. This man had apparently also been captured. After calls for "Where is Nudnud?" the executioner appeared and performed his gruesome work on his former employer. During the execution, the Caliph's henchmen first cut off Babak's legs and hands to convey a devastating message to his followers, followed by disembowelment.^[6][32] He was then gibbeted alive whilst sewn into a cow's skin with horns at ear level to gradually crush his head as it dried.^[3] Babak's severed head was dispatched to Khorasan while his corpse remained on permanent display at what became known as "Babak's Execution Site".^[32] Babak's brother Abdullah was executed and displayed in Baghdad the same year under the supervision of Ishaq, who also gibbeted his corpse in Baghdad.^[27][33]

Shortly after, Minkajur al-Ushrusani, whom al-Afshin had appointed as governor of Adharbayjan after the defeat of the Khurramites, rose in revolt, either because he had been involved in financial irregularities, or because he had been a co-conspirator of al-Afshin's. Bugha the Elder marched against him, forcing him to capitulate and receive a safe-passage to Samarra in 840.^[34][35]

Subsequently, al-Mu'tasim launched his second campaign against Mazyar, the autonomous Qarinid ruler of Tabaristan.^[36] Mazyar was one of Babak's allies, rebelled in Tabaristan against the caliphate, One of his motives was to spread Zoroastrianism, however the Abbasids suppressed his rebellion and executed him, crucifying him next to Babak in 840CE.^[29] Ishaq ibn Ibrahim captured Mazyar. Upon receiving him, Ishaq ordered him to be transported on an elephant and escorted him to the caliph in Samarra. That same year Ishaq formed part of the tribunal that prosecuted the disgraced general al-Afshin, which ended with al-Afshin being found guilty of apostasy and thrown into prison.^[37] Later at the same location of "Babak's execution site" the body of al-Afshin (who had been disgraced and executed) was crucified for public display, then burned, with his ashes scattered in the Tigris River.^[38]

Another rebel appeared known as Smbat VIII Bagratuni, Smbat just like the other Armenian princes, that were able to use the Caliphate's preoccupation with the Khurramite rebellion of Babak Khorramdin to achieve a significant degree of autonomy during this period.^[39] Smbat, who had spent time at the caliphal court as a hostage, was more circumspect about openly challenging Arab power than his brother, but both were ultimately too weak to seriously threaten Abbasid predominance for the time being.^[40] When Khalid ibn Yazid al-Shaybani, who in his previous tenures had become enormously unpopular among both the Christian and the Arab princes of the country, was appointed as caliphal governor in 841, Smbat led the reaction against him. The rebels achieved his recall by the Caliph and his replacement with the weaker and more pliant Ali ibn Husayn, to whom the Armenians not only refused to hand over the expected taxes, but whom they promptly blockaded in his capital, Bardaa.^[41][42] When Caliph al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) reappointed Khalid as governor, Smbat was again at the forefront of a revolt against him, alongside the Muslim rebel Sawada ibn Abd al-Hamid al-Jahhafi and Sahak, Prince of Syunik. The rebels were heavily defeated at the Battle of Kawakert, however.^[43] Like all prominent nakharar, he was taken captive by Bugha al-Kabir when he invaded Armenia in 853–855.^[44]

After the Execution of Babak, Khurramites were left leaderless and they converted to Islam.^[45] According to Dionysius, in 227/842, four years after Babak's brutal execution, the Khurramites rebelled at the mountainous region of Beth Qardu, led by a man named Müsa. It was said that Persian forces were dispatched against them, but they were ineffective, rather than engaging in combat, the soldiers were housed in village homes where they lived off local provisions without accomplishing their military objectives. 15,000 soldiers lost their lives during a severe cold. According to some Muslim sources, there was another major uprising, under the leadership of a Kurd named Jafar ibn Mihrijīsh/Faharjish in 227/841. This occurred in the same mountainous region of Mosul (Beth Qardu) and was supposedly part of the same uprising, although Jafar wasn't identified as a Khurramite. The Khurramites organized another uprising in Isfahan during 227-32/841-7, launching raids on Karaj, the uprisings of the Isfahan region continued until 300/912. The Khurramites had a new leader named Bāryazdshah (or the like) who entrenched himself in the mountains near Isfahan, raiding rural settlements and intercepting trade routes. Bāryazdshah was described like Babak as bloodthirsty, killing children and the elderly. He and his followers lasted for 30 years. He was captured and his head was mounted for public display in Isfahan in 321/933, when Ali ibn Buya assaulted some Khurramite Strongholds in Karaj, marking the end of the Khurramite series of uprisings.^[46]

Notes

1. "Although al-Mu'tasim's general Afshin had finally succeeded in annihilating Babak in 837, this victory was won at the price of such sacrifices that the Caliphate was in no position to undertake any other contests."^[1] "Babak’s resistance was ended in 838 when he was defeated by an Iranian general."^[2]
2. al-Tabri has mentioned Bugha's participation in the Abbasid campaigns against Babak in 835-836.^[4]
3. "The size of his army has been variously described as between 100,000 and 200,000 fighters, which is probably an exaggeration, but it does show that he had much support for his cause."^[2]
4. Crone writes, "As one Armenian put it, he killed 30,000, more than 100,000, or 255,000—counting Muslims only—a million, or 500,000 according to low estimates, uncountable numbers according to high ones. Clearly nobody knew. She concludes it was not the number, but Babak's readiness to kill anyone that earned him his bloodthirsty reputation.^[5] Various figures, said to have been obtained from an executioner or executioners whom Bābak had employed, are given for those whose death he ordered in the course of his long revolt; the figure of 255,000 or more in most of the sources. is obviously an exaggeration, no doubt intended to impute cruelty and bloodthirstiness to Bābak.^[6]
5. Ishaq ibn Ibrahim dealt a decisive blow to the Khurramites and ruthlessly suppressed the rebellion, killing 60,000 to 100,000 Khurramites.^[7] Richard Foltz claims that after Babak's uprising was suppressed, 100,000 of his followers were killed.^[8] during the Khurramite uprising of Azerbaijan, reportedly 30,000 men were killed, and so many women and children enslaved.^[9]