Bitextual work

Bitextual work (or bi-textual work) is a form of writing in which a single text allows multiple interpretations through the use of homographs—words with the same spelling but different meanings. It is conceptually similar to a pun, but applied at a scholarly or literary level. This form of literary creation was most popular among Sanskrit writers and later spread to other regional languages in India because of the influence of Sanskrit literature. In Sanskrit, it is known as śleṣa, which translates literally as "to embrace". This form originated in the sixth century CE and flourished in India until the colonial periods. In modern times, the writing of bi-textual poems is unappreciated and considered an inferior literary activity.^[1][2][3]

The term "bitextual work", or more specifically, "bitextual poetry", should not be confused with the term "bidirectional poetry", which is a genre of poetry in Sanskrit in which each stanza can be read both from left to right as well as from right to left, with the two readings giving totally different meanings. The poem Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvyaṃ (c. 1580) by Sūryadāsa is a well-known example of bidirectional poetry.

Examples of bitextual verse

Daṇḍin (fl. 7th–8th century) in his Kāvyādarśa, the earliest surviving systematic treatment of poetics in Sanskrit, illustrates the concept of sleṣa with the following verse:^[4]

असावुदयमारूढः कान्तिमान् रक्तमण्डलः ।

राजा हरति लोकस्य हृदयं मृदुभिः करैः ॥

asāvudayamārūdhah kāntimān raktamandalah ।

rājāharati lokasya hrdayam mrdubhih karaih ॥

This verse can be translated into English in the following two ways, with the fact that it has two totally different meanings:^[4]

• “This person has ascended the region of prosperity and is full of splendour; and the mandalas of districts are attached to him; and he the king captivates the hearts of the people by light taxes."

• "This resplendent moon has ascended the heavens and is full of splendor and is reddish (as he newly rises) and he captivates the people by soft rays."

The two interpretations arise due to the different meanings of the words that appear in the verse. The word "udaya" has several meanings. In the first interpretation, it refers to a king’s rise to power; in the second, it refers to the eastern mountain over which the moon ascends. Likewise, the word "maṇḍala" translates to "circle", like the moon’s disc, which is the meaning used in the second translation of the verse. However, it can also refer to a king’s circle of allies, which is the meaning chosen in the first translation. The word "kara" refers to the taxes levied by a king, but also can be translated as "[the moon’s] rays". In a more general setting, such as in the traditions of Sanskrit literature, the moon itself is imagined to be the king of the stars.

Daṇḍin has followed the above verse with the following verse which may be thought of as the continuation of a poem:^[4]

दोषाकरेण सम्बन्धन् नक्षत्रपथवर्तिना ।

राज्ञा प्रदोषो मामिथमप्रियं किं न बाधते ॥

doṣākareṇa sambandhan nakṣatrapathavartinā ।

rājñā pradoṣo māmithamapriyaṃ kiṃ na bādhate ॥

The two different translations of the verse based on its two different meanings are as follows:^[3]

• "Having secured an alliance with that vicious king, whose conduct is far from noble, is there anything to stop this villain from tormenting his enemy — me?"

• "Now that he’s joined by that nocturnal king, who resides among the planets, is there anything to stop the evening from tormenting me — separated from my beloved?"

To get the different meanings, the words in the verse might have to be split up differently. For example, the word "nakṣatra" without splitting up means "planet", but it can be split up as "na" + "kṣatra", which then has the meaning "not a warrior".

Bitextual work in India

The earliest Sanskrit poets never used śleṣa to embellish their poems. For example, there is no śleṣa in Valmiki's Ramayana, which is considered one of the first Sanskrit epics. While the mahākāvas by second-century-CE author Aśvaghoṣa contain śleṣa, at the same time, fourth-century poet and playwright Kālidāsa used śleṣa rarely. Śleṣa appears prominently for the first time in the writing of sixth-century-CE poet Bhāravi. The earliest literary creation which used śleṣa extensively is Vāsavadattā, a classical Sanskrit romantic tale written entirely in prose by sixth-century author Subandhu. Little is known about Subandhu; however, Vāsavadattā was likely highly acclaimed and popular, as suggested by the fact it has yielded more than twenty commentaries.

Notable bitextual works

The following is a partial list of some of the notable bitextual works written in Sanskrit still available today:^[3]

• Cidambarakavi, Pañcakalyānacampū
• Cidambarakavi, Rāghavapāndavayādavīya (c. 1600)
• Dhanañjaya, Dvisandhāna Mahākāvya (c. 800)
• Haradatta Sūri, Rāghavanaisadhīya (c. 1700)
• Hemacandrasūri, Nābheyanemikāvya (c. 1125)
• Kavirāja, Rāghavapāndavīya (c. 1175)
• Krsnakavi, Naisadhapārijāta (seventeenth century)
• Krsnapandita, Rāghavapāndavīya (c. 1250)
• Sandhyākaranandin, Rāmacaritam (c. 1100)
• Śesācalapati, Kosalabhosalīya (c. 1700)
• Vasupraharāja, Rāghavayādavīya (eighteenth century)
• Venkatādhvari,^[spelling?] Yādavarāghavīya (c. 1650)
• Vidyāmādhava, Pārvatīrukminīya (c. 1200)