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Dvaravati
7th to 11th-century Mon kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dvaravati[a] was a group of medieval Mon political principalities from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known as central Thailand,[5][6]: 234 and was speculated to be a succeeding state of Lang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu (หลังยะสิ่ว).[7]: 268–270, 281 It was described by Chinese pilgrims in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom named To-lo-po-ti situated to the west of Isanapura (Cambodia), east of Sri Ksetra (Burma),[8]: 76 [9]: 37 and adjoined Pan Pan to the South.[7]: 267, 269 Its northern border met Jiā Luó Shě Fú (迦逻舍佛), which is identified with Canasapura in modern northeast Thailand.[10] Dvaravati sent the first embassy to the Chinese court around 605–616,[7]: 264 and then in 756.[11]
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Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration of principalities of Mon people.[3] The Mon migrants as maritime traders might have brought the Dvaravati Civilization to the Menam Valley around 500 BCE,[12]: 32 which continued to the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period that spans the 4th to 5th centuries, with the existence of the principalities of Chin Lin to the western plain and Tou Yuan to the east, and perhaps earlier.[3]
The center of the early Davaravati was speculated to be Ayojjhapura (present-day Si Thep)[2] or Nakhon Pathom[13]: 10–1 or Avadhyapura (Si Mahosot).[14] Still, the power was shifted to Lavo's Lavapura after the annexation of Tou Yuan in 647; some scholars say this transition happened around the 10th and 11th centuries following the fall of Si Thep.[2] However, some argue that Lavapura was potentially a separate kingdom known as the Lavo Kingdom, as mentioned in several historical records, but came under the sphere of Dvaravati influence.[13]: 10–1, 43
The rise of the Angkor in the lower Mekong basin around the 11th–13th centuries,[15] the conquest of Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula by Tambralinga's king Sujita who also seized Lavo in the mid-10th century,[7]: 283 [16]: 16 the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation of Lavo,[17] as well as the Pagan invasion of Menam Valley around the mid-10th century.[16]: 41 [18]: 4 All of these potentially are the causes of the fall of the Dvaravati civilization.[7]: 283 [16]: 41 Jean Boisselier suggests that after losing influence over the eastern valleys at Lavo to the Angkor in the 10th–11th centuries, Dvaravati kingdoms in the western plain continued until the early 12th century and then probably fell under or influenced[b] by Angkor for a short period during the reign of Jayavarman VII (r.1181–1218).[13]: 262–3 After that, the region entered the Xiān era with the emergence of Suphannabhum, Phrip Phri, and Ayodhya, who later regained influence over Lavo in the 14th century.
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History
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The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be U Thong in what is now Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include Nakhon Pathom, Phong Tuk, Si Thep, Khu Bua and Si Mahosot, amongst others.[3] The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed in Sanskrit śrī dvāravatī. The Sanskrit word dvāravatī literally means "that which has gates".[19]: 301 According to the inscription N.Th. 21 found in 2019 in Wat Phra Ngam in Nakhon Pathom, dated the 6th century, three regional cities were mentioned, including Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅga or Śrīyānaṁdimiriṅgapratipura, then Hastināpurī and Dvāravatī, which made Nakhon Pathom where the fractions was discovered probably the center of Dvāravatī.[20]: 281
The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations in Chan Sen and Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site of U-Thong indicate that the starting point of the tradition of Dvaravati culture possibly dates as far back as 200 CE.[21][3] Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however, that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries.[3] Dvaravati culture and influence also spread into Isan and parts of lowland Laos from the sixth century onward. Key sites include Mueang Fa Daet in Kalasin Province, Sema in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, and many others.[22][23]
In the book of I Ching or Yijing, dating to the late 7th century, and the 629–645 journey of a Chinese monk, Xuanzang, placed Dvaravati to the east of Kamalanka or Lang-ya-hsiu and west of Isanapura, if Kamalanka was centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom as several scholars cited, thus, Dvaravati must be moved to the eastern side of the central plain.[24]: 181–3 This conforms with the location provided in the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled in 1005, says that Dvaravati was to the west of Chenla and the east of the Ge Luo She Fen Kingdom (哥罗舍分国), which was proposed to be centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, same as Kamalanka, by Thai historian Piriya Krairiksh, who also identified this kingdom as the Gē Luó Kingdom (哥罗国) in the New Book of Tang,[25]: 59 that also says Dvaravati met the sea (Bay of Bangkok) to the west, adjoin Chenla to the east, and encounter Canasapura to the north.[26] However, according to archaeological evidence found in the western Menam Valley, several scholars suggest Nakhon Pathom was potentially the center of the Dvaravati Kingdoms.[13]: 43
Chinese historian, Chen Jiarong (陳佳榮), claims that the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom in the Cefu Yuangui and Book of Sui was Dvaravati principality,[27] but some scholar placed Zhū Jiāng in the Mun Basin in the Phayakkhaphum Phisai–Nadun–Kaset Wisai cluster to the north of Chenla with the supra-regional center at Champasri.[28]: 45 Zhū Jiāng and Cān Bàn Kingdom established relations with Zhenla via royal intermarriage after the annexation of Funan in 627.[29] Subsequently, they wage wars against Tou Yuan to the northwest. Tou Yuan was the Lavo's predecessor that became Dvaravati vassal in 647.[30]: 15–16 [31] Several kingdoms were involved in the conflicts between Dvaravati and Chenla, including the three brother states of Qiān Zhī Fú, Xiū Luó Fēn, and Gān Bì, who collectively fielded over 50,000 elite soldiers, by aligning with the faction that offered the greatest advantage.[14]: 54–5 Certain battles may have been associated with the wars between Lavo and its northern sister Monic kingdom, Haripuñjaya, occurring in the early 10th century,[14]: 36–7 which also weakened Dvaravati Kamalanka.[16]: 105
A mixed Sanskrit–Khmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes of Canasapura, one of the Dvaravati polities, started by a Bhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman.[8]: 122 Further east, the Chinese Tang Huiyao mentions the kingdom of Keoi Lau Mì of the Kuy people[32] was also influenced by Dvaravati.[33] In the early 10th century, several Dvaravati polities in the Menam Valley, which were weakened by decade-long wars between two Mon kingdoms, Hariphunchai and Lavo, fell to the invasion by Tambralinga, then by the Chola and Pagan in the late 10th century. Later, Dvaravati polities began to come under constant attacks and aggression of the Khmer Empire, and central Southeast Asia was ultimately invaded by King Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century.[34] Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was incorporated into Lan Na.[35]
During the decline period of Dvaravati, its succeeded polity,[36] mentioned as Xiān (暹) by several Chinese and Đại Việt sources, was formed in the lower Menam Basin around the 11th century.[37]: 46 This new polity evolved into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1351.[1] Its capital's full name also referred to Dvaravati as the former capital; Krung Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya (กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา).[38][39][40][41] All former Dvaravati principalities, including Lavo, Suphannabhum, and the northern cities of the Sukhothai Kingdom, were later incorporated into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1388, 1424, and 1438, respectively.[42]: 274
According to the Burmese Inscription of Hsinbyushin of Ava A.D. 1768 (Serial No. 1128),[43] which was found on a bronze gun at Shwezigon Pagoda, and acquired by the Burmese in 1767, the Burmese continued to refer to Ayutthaya as Dvaravati[44] by describing the "conquest of Dvāravati (Siam)"[43] even after its fall to a Burmese invasion during the Pagan Kingdom. Several genetic studies published in the 2020s also founded the relations between the Mon people and Siamese people (Central Thai people) who were the descendants of the Ayutthaya.[45][46] The Laotian Phra That Phanom Chronicle also refers to Ayodhya before the traditional formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom as Dvaravati and Sri Ayodhiya Dvaravati Nakhon (ศรีอโยธิยาทวารวดีนคร).[47]
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Government
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Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose gathering of chiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the upper peninsula to the riverine region of Chao Phraya River. Hinduism and Buddhism were significant. There are 107 Dvaravati cities in Thailand, most of which are in the central plain.[48]: 66 The three largest settlements appear to have been at Nakhon Pathom, Suphanburi, and Phraek Si Racha, with additional centers at U Thong, Chansen, Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang Phra Rot, Lopburi, Si Mahosot, Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu Mueang, and Si Thep.[19]: 303–312
According to the Chinese records during the Tang dynasty, Dvaravati is divided into three regions; possibly Kamalanka at Nakhon Pathom which has been identified as the center of Dvaravati culture, former Chin Lin at Mueang Uthong, and the last one at Si Mahosot of Avadhyapura. Many government officials, such as military generals and civil servants, administer the national affairs.[49]: 55 Dvaravati has two vassal kingdoms, including Tou Yuan (陀垣) the Lavo predecessor, and an island kingdom Tanling (曇陵),[30]: 15–16 [31]: 27 whose exact location remains unknown; it was potentially located on some island or small peninsula in the swamp area of the early historic Bay of Bangkok.[30]: 15–16
A study on Dvaravati settlement patterns before the 14th century in the upper Chi-Mun basins suggests that Dvaravati might have been made up of several kingdoms linked by trade networks and centered at supra-regional level settlements, such as Dong Mueang Aem, Phimai, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, Mueang Sema, Non Mueang, and Si Thep;[50]: 151–152 similar to in the Menam Valley.[51] A 2015 study of the pre-600 CE circular moated settlements in the Mun Valleys found that the sites were concentrated into five groups; the westernmost and smallest group with a total of four settlements is the Mueang Sema circle. To the east is the Phimai cluster which has a larger number of settlements than the other groups. Next is the group of Phayakkhaphum Phisai–Nadun–Kaset Wisai on the northern Mun watershed with the well known site at Champasri, which has been identified as the Zhū Jiāng Kingdom or later Zhān Bó. To the south is the Buriram–Surin group, which has almost the same size in terms of number of settlements and predicted mean size as the third group. The last cluster is the easternmost on the adjoined watershed of the Mun–Chi Rivers, with the most concentrated area in Suwannaphum, Phon Sai, and Nong Hi of Roi Et province.[52]: 8–9
The following shows the polities under Dvaravati culture in the Menam and the Chi-Mun Valleys during the first millennium.
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Rulers
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The excavation in several sites found silver coins dated the 7th century that mentioned the king and queen of the kingdom written in Sanskrit with Pallava script: śrīdvaravatīsvarapunya (King Sridvaravati, who has great merit) and śrīdvaravatīsvaradevīpuṇya (the goddess of the meritorious King Dvaravati).[54] In addition, the copper plate dating from the 6th–mid 7th centuries found at U Thong also mentions King Harshavarman (หรรษวรมัน), who was assumed by Jean Boisselier to be one of the kings of Dvaravati, while George Cœdès considered the plate was brought from the Khmer Empire, and the name mentioned might be the Khmer king as well.[55] However, the periods seem unrelated since King Harshavarman I of Khmer reigned from 910–923, 200 years later than the age of the inscription,[56][57] and Harshavarman I's grandfather was Indravarman I,[58][59][60] not Isanavarman as the inscription mentioned.[55]
Moreover, the inscription found in Ban Wang Pai, Phetchabun province (K. 978), dated 550 CE, also mentions the enthronement of the Dvaravati ruler, who was also a son of Prathivindravarman, father of Bhavavarman I of Chenla, which shows the royal lineage relation between Dvaravati and Chenla. However, the name of such a king was missing.[61] The other king was mentioned in the Nern Phra Ngam inscription, found in Nakhon Pathom province, dated mid 5th – mid 6th centuries CE but the name was missing as well.[62]
However, some research suggests Bhavavarman mentioned in the Ban Wang Pai inscription of Si Thep may not be Bhavavarman I of Chenla due to different inscription styles.[63]: 17–19
The following chart shows the dynastic relation between Dvaravati polities and other kingdoms in the Chao Phraya–Mekong Valleys
Chin Lin
Kamalanka
Qiān Zhī Fú
Lavo
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Art
Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by Indian culture, and played an important role in introducing Buddhism and particularly Buddhist art to the region. Stucco motifs on the religious monuments include garudas, makaras, and Nāgas. Additionally, groups of musicians have been portrayed with their instruments, prisoners, females with their attendants, soldiers indicative of social life. Votive tablets have also been found, also moulds for tin amulets, pottery, terracotta trays, and a bronze chandelier, earrings, bells and cymbals.[19]: 306–308
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Notes
- Several cities in the western valleys are listed in the religious-related Preah Khan Inscription but no political or military action made by the Angkorian kings was mentioned. In contrast, several Siamese chronicles mention numbers of dynastic movements in the region during this period, such as refounding Phrip Phri by Pprappanom Tteleiseri from Soucouttae/Locontàï in 1188, claiming Suphannabhum by Uthong I in 1163, annexation of Chen Li Fu and Phraek Si Racha by Phrip Phri in 1224, and the enthronement as Ayodhya king of Uthong II, prince of Phrip Phri, in 1205.
- According to Karen M. Mudar (1999)
- According to Cefu Yuangui
- If Tou Yuan was the predecessor of the Lavo Kingdom, as proposed by Tatsuo Hoshino,[14]: 54 Duō Miè — which bordered west of Tou Yuan — should be in the area of Phraek Si Racha.
- Established as a polity under Kalavarnadisharaja of Lavo
- If Bhavavarman mentioned in the inscription is not Bhavavarman I and Bhavavarman II of Chenla.[63]: 17–19
- If Tchai pappe Mahanacon is equated with Si Thep
- Calculated from the text given in the chronicle: "สิ้น 97 ปีสวรรคต ศักราชได้ 336 ปี พระยาโคดมได้ครองราชสมบัติอยู่ ณ วัดเดิม 30 ปี"[65]: 30 which is transcribed as "...at the age of 97, he passed away in the year 336 of the Chula Sakarat. Phraya Kodom reigned in the Mueang Wat Derm for 30 years...".
- The sources say Balidhiraja overthrew the former ruler at Nakhon Chai Si and assigned his younger son, Sai Thong Som, as the new ruler and then enthroned his elder son, Balipatijaya, as the new king of Nakhon Luang. See the interpretation on Nakhon Luang at Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri.
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