Gtaʼ language

The Gtaʼ language (also Gataʼ, Gataʔ, and Gtaʔ), also known as Gta Asa, Didei or Didayi ([ɖiɖaːj(i)]), is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Didayi people of southernmost Odisha in India. It is notable for its sesquisyllabic phonology^[3] and vigesimal (base 20) numeral system.

Gta'
Didayi
ଡିଡାୟୀ
Pronunciation	India
Region	Odisha
Ethnicity	Didayi
Native speakers	(3,100 cited 1991 census)[1]
Language family	Austroasiatic Munda South Gta'
Writing system	Odia
Language codes
ISO 639-3	gaq
Glottolog	gata1239
ELP	Gta'
Geta? [sic] is classified as Severely Endangered according to the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger[2]

Classification and dialects

The Gtaʼ language belongs to the South Munda subgroup of the Munda branch of the Austroasiatic language family.^[1] Within South Munda, Gtaʼ is generally considered to be the first branch off a node that also subsumes the Remo and Gutob languages; this subgroup of South Munda is known as Gutob–Remo–Gataq. It is phonologically and morphologically divergent within that branch.^[4]

Gtaʼ has two main varieties, namely Plains Gtaʼ and Hill Gtaʼ.

Neighboring languages

Gtaʼ echo-formation shows some striking similarities with echo-formation in neighboring Munda languages such as Remo and Gorum as well as in the Desia dialect of Oriya spoken in the Koraput Munda region. The most conspicuous feature they have in common with Gtaʼ is that echo-words in all three of these languages are also derived from base words by changes in the vowels alone.^[5]

Demographics

Gtaʼ is spoken by 3,000 people primarily in Malkangiri district, Odisha as well as adjoining areas of Koraput district.^[3] According to Anderson (2008), it is spoken by less than 4,500 people.

Ethnologue reports the following locations:

• Odisha (47 villages): Kudumulgumma block and Chitrakonda block of Koraput district and Malkangiri district, south of Bondo Hills; some in Khairput block
• East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh

Phonology

Gtaʼ has the 5 canonical vowels /a, e, i, o, u/, and sometimes a sixth vowel /æ/. To this can be added several nasalized counterparts: /ã, õ, ũ/ and sometimes /ĩ/. Gtaʼ has the following consonants:^[3]

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop	voiceless	p	[t]	ʈ	tʃ	k	ʔ
	voiced	b	[d]	ɖ	dʒ	ɡ
Fricative			s				h
Nasal		m	n			ŋ
Approximant			l		j	w
Flap			ɾ	ɽ

There are numerous lexical items that contain initial consonant clusters and CCVC word shape in Gtaʔ. Eg. plwesa ('jackfruit), gtaʔ ('Gtaʔ person').

Grammar

Nouns

Nouns in Gtaʼ are primarily marked for case, number and possession.^[6]

Nouns also have two forms, one a free full form, the other a bound short form. These latter occur only when the noun is compounded with another noun or a verb for derivational purposes, and are hence labeled "combining forms". The combining form usually involves removing an affix or shortening the noun in some way.

Free form	Combining form	Gloss
ncu	-cu-	oil
gsi	-si-	louse
gbe	-be-	bear
gnar	-gar-	bamboo strip
remwa	-re-	person

Verb agreement

Like Kharia, Gutob and Remo, Gta verbs only index the S and A arguments.

Subject indexation paradigm in Gta

Subject	Indexed stem
1SG	n-Σ
2SG	na-Σ
1PL.INCL	ni-Σ
1PL.EXCL	næ-Σ
2DU	pe-Σ
2PL	pa-Σ
3SG	Ø-Σ
3PL	Ø-Σ-har

S-V-O transitive configuration has been fossilized with only one survived example: the plural marker -har is used to indicate 1>3 scenario.

gtela

then

næŋ

I

mriaʔ-ce

rise-SS

a-mæhiŋ-ke

OBJ-3PL-OBL

m-bagweʔ-har-e

1.SUBJ-kill-PL:1>3.OBJ-FUT

gtela næŋ mriaʔ-ce a-mæhiŋ-ke m-bagweʔ-har-e

then I rise-SS OBJ-3PL-OBL 1.SUBJ-kill-PL:1>3.OBJ-FUT

'Then I will get up and kill them all'

Echo formation

Gtaʔ is also notable for its use of echo words. There are four broad categories of echo forms:^[5]

• a-forms, indicating gross variety;
• i-forms, indicating diminutive or tender variety;
• u/a-forms, indicating variety different from a related category;
• partially changed forms, indicating inferior variety: a-forms, indicating grossness; and i-forms, indicating tenderness.

The phonological rules for deriving one type of echo word are as follows:^[5]

1. Echo-words are formed by changing only the vowels of the base word.
2. The echo-word must differ from the base word. The vowel of univocalic base words is reflected as either /a/ or /i/ in the echo-word. For base-word /u, e, o/ the vowel /a/ is preferred, while for base word /ɛ/ the vowel /i/ is preferred.
3. The vowels of disyllabic base words are reflected in the echo-word as follows:
   • Both vowels are reflected as either /a/ or /i/; or
   • Only one of the base-word vowels is reflected as /a/ or /i/ while the other is reflected unchanged; or
   • The first vowel (V1) changes to /u/ while the second (V2) changes to /a/.
4. In the case of trisyllabic base words, one, two or all three of the vowels (in adjacent syllables) are reflected as either /a/ or /i/.
5. The echo-forms of compound words, irrespective of their vocalic structure, are derived as follows:
   • In the case of compound verbs consisting of two verb stems, one or both stems undergo change, depending on their relationship with each other;
   • Nominal combining forms occurring with verb stems change independently; those attached to noun stems change only at par with the main stem.
   • In verbal constructions incorporating a prefix, both the prefix and the stem change as a unit.

Combining forms of nouns occurring with verb stems can be echoed independently of the verb stems; those occurring with noun stems either remain intact or change at par with the main stems.

Switch reference

Gtaʔ has two switch reference markers, tʃe (same subject) and la (different subject) to link the finite verb of the preceding clause with the non-finite verb of the following clause. This system reflects in Gtaʔ narrative style of oral folk stories.^[7]

ɖukri

old.woman

hoʔru=hoʔria-tʄe

weep=ECHO-SS

swa

fire

e-r'ro-ran-tʄe

~go.carry-bring-SS

handa-ndoe-ne

husband-3.REF-GEN

mor-ke

corpse-OBL

tʄwar-tʄe

dry-SS

aʔ-nswar-bo-ke

CAUS-dry-keep-ke.PST

ɖukri hoʔru=hoʔria-tʄe swa e-r'ro-ran-tʄe handa-ndoe-ne mor-ke tʄwar-tʄe aʔ-nswar-bo-ke

old.woman weep=ECHO-SS fire ~go.carry-bring-SS husband-3.REF-GEN corpse-OBL dry-SS CAUS-dry-keep-ke.PST

'the old woman wept a lot and then made a fire, dried up her husband's corpse and preserved it'

mæ-pa

he-DU

mba-ya

two-person

hara-hari

defeat-ECHO

ɖin-tʄe

AUX-SS

koɖa

mountain

pwetur-æg-har-ke

surround-shit-PL-PST

mæ-pa mba-ya hara-hari ɖin-tʄe koɖa pwetur-æg-har-ke

he-DU two-person defeat-ECHO AUX-SS mountain surround-shit-PL-PST

'The two of them trying to beat each other, went around the mountain shitting.'

hɽiŋ

later.on

oʔɽi=mwa

how.much=year

sgwa

like

we-la

go-DS

ɖokra

old.man

gweʔ=we-ge

die=AUX-PST

hɽiŋ oʔɽi=mwa sgwa we-la ɖokra gweʔ=we-ge

later.on how.much=year like go-DS old.man die=AUX-PST

'later on, after like several years passed, the man died'

Numeral system

Gta' numeral system is vigesimal.^[8]

1. muiŋ	21. mũikuɽi muiŋ / ekustɔra
2. mbar	22. mũikuɽi mbar
3. ɲji	23. mũikuɽi ɲji
4. õ	24. mũikuɽi hõ
5. malʷe	25. mũikuɽi malikliɡˀ
6. tur	26. mũikuɽi turukliɡˀ
7. ɡul	27. mũikuɽi gukliɡˀ
8. tma / aʈʈa	28. mũikuɽi tomakliɡˀ / mũikuɽi tma
9. sontiŋ / nɔʈa	29. mũikuɽi sontiŋkliɡˀ
10. ɡʷa / dɔsʈa	30. mũikuɽi ɡʷa (20 + 10) / tirisʈa
11. ɡʷamiŋ / eɡaʈa
12. ɡombar / baroʈa
13. ɡoɲji / teroʈa
14. ɡohõ / coudoʈa	40. mbarkuɽi (2 × 20) / calistɔra
15. ɡomal / pɔndrɔʈa	50. mbarkuɽi ɡʷa / pɔcas
16. ɡotur / soloːʈa	60. ɲjikuɽi (3 × 20) / saʈe
17. ɡogu / sɔtroʈa	70. ɲjikuɽi ɡʷa / suturi
18. ɡotma / aʈɾa	80. ōkuɽi (4 × 20)
19. ɡososiŋ / unisʈa	90. ōkuɽi ɡʷa
20. ɡosolɡa / kuɽitɔra / kuɽeta	100. malkuɽi (5 × 20) / soetɔra