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Has Hlai grammar
Grammar of the Has Hlai language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.[1][2]
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Introduction
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The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago.[3] The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.
In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.
A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究),[4] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages[clarification needed]: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.
In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).[5]
At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).
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Phonology and orthography
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Consonants
Has Hlai has 31 consonants.[6] /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.
Notes:
- /ʔ/ is a null initial
- /ʔw/ and /ʔj/ are glottalized
- The velar stops are allophonic in Has Hlai with fricative forms (/k/ > /x/, etc)
- /f/, /v/ are labiodental; /m/, /b/, /p/, /pʰ/, and /pl/ are bilabial
Vowel rimes
Tones
Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone")[clarification needed] or not ("level tone")[clarification needed].
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Grammar
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Nouns
Common nouns
Related to mankind/person
- 【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others' wives.
- 【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others' husbands.
- 【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word "bais"
- 【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word "pas"; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.
Related to objects/things
- 【ghang】: hill, mountain
- 【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
- 【laengs】: sea
- 【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
- 【ghei】: rice
Related to time or space
- 【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
- 【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left
Proper nouns
People
- Han (Chinese) name: All Li's Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
- Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).
Group/organization/party
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.
Places
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, "Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)"; Haeisnaems dhaeus, "Hainan Island, 海海南岛"; Lokdhongs, "Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )"
Nations
- Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, "China, 中国";
- few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, "Han people, 汉族"; Hlai, "Li people, 黎族"
Abstract nouns
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.[citation needed]
Basic rules for nouns
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.
zuu
a/one
lang
CL
dzax
snake
"a snake"
But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
|
fus three boux year "three years" |
hlaus two hwan day "two days" |
ba five nyaen month "May"
|
When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."
ba
five
hom
CL
nyaen
month
"five months"
2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:
|
ranx every zuen CL uxaeu man/one "everyone" |
ranx every hom CL blongs house "every house"
|
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.
- pasdza, "father"
- baisdza, "mother"
- paskai, "cock/rooster"（kai: chicken）
- baiskai, "hen"
- pasdzuengsgong, "salesman" （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）
- baisdzuengsgong, "saleswoman"
When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
Kun
PL
hluuekmuuen
young man
hauux
those
zuu
one
pas
CL
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CL
"Each of those young men ate one."
4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.
Kun
PL
aeudza
old man
rien
say/talk/speak
tun
word
raeu
laugh
dhuus
in
fou
under
cai.
tree
"The old men were telling jokes under the tree."
The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,
Kun
PL
hlaus
two
zuen
CL
kauus
older sister
fuuek
weave
riens
skirt
paens.
decorative pattern
"The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern."
5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.
cai
tree
subject
tuuen
out of
ceeng
flower
object
"trees bloom (flowers)"
Veengs
shirt/top
subject
hauux
that
veengs
shirt/top
predicate
meuu.
you.SG
"That shirt/top is yours."
6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.
Meuu
you
kweis
want
ojiep
learn
caqias
script
Hlai
Li
da?
Q
"Do you want to learn Hlai script?"
7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.
Tong
tong
neix
this
cai
tree/wood
vuek.
do/make
"This hookah is made out of wood." (tong = An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah)
8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.
Hwanneix
today
fous
hot
dhat
very
lo!
EMPH
"It's so hot today!"
Na
he/she
uunyeuu
day after tomorrow
hei
go
zok
to/toward
das.
mother's mother
"He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow."
Fa
we
uupans
yesterday
beuuluueng.
come back
"We came back yesterday."
9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.
Vabheny
airplane
neix
this
guu
POSS
Dongxgok.
China
"This airplane belongs to China."
Hlaus
two
lang
CL
duis
water buffalo
neix
this
guu
POSS
Laufus.
Mr. Fu
"These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu."
Verbs
Action verbs
- 【vuek，做】: to do, make...(it is used frequently)
- 【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke...; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
- 【duuengx，给】: to give
- 【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
- 【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
- 【dzok，偷】: to steal
- 【zongs，坐】: to sit
- 【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite...
- 【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
- 【cuuek，休息】: to rest
- 【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
- 【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
- others
Linking verbs
- 【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
- 【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not
Verbs for expressing mental activities
- 【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
- 【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
- 【oep，爱】: to love, to like
- 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
- 【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
- 【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
- 【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
- 【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
- others
Verbs for expressing existence, change, development
- 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
- 【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
- 【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
- 【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
- 【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
- 【dzauux，变】: to change
- others
Modal verbs
- 【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
- 【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
- 【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
- 【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
- 【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
- 【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
- 【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
- 【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
- 【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
- 【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
- 【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
- 【auux，敢】: to dare to
- others
Verbs of motion
- 【buuen，来】: to come
- 【hei，去】: to go
- 【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
- 【luueng，返】: to return
- 【dhuas，过】: to pass through
- 【kaen，上】: to go up
- 【luei，下】: to go down
- 【hluet，进】: to go into
- 【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
- 【dhaens，到】: to arrive
Basic rules for verbs
Tense/aspect
In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.
Progressive aspect
The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,
ex:
Hluuek
child
na
he/she
fietla
ADV.PROG
laix
plough
dax.
field
"His children/child are/is plowing the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子正在犁田)
Perfect aspect
The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,
Hluuek
child
na
he/she
bhaeis
ADV.PERF
hei
go
ang
field
he.
accent
"His children/child already went to the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子已经去山栏地了)
Pashlaus
older brother
na
he/she
bhaeis
ADV.PERF
bleuu
hear
fan
then
rien,
say
"Eis,
accent
hluumsghweuu
don't know
na
he/she
guu.
FUT
loms
still/again
cas
or
da?"
not
'When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"' (Chinese: 他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?")
If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,
The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,
Meuu
you
laeis
see
zuu
one
zuen
CL
aeu
person/people
neix
this
dhuas
PERF
cas
or
da?
not
"Have you ever seen this man?" (Chinese: 你见过这个人吗？)
Dhes
I
da
not
rien
say/speak
dhongneix
like this
dhuas.
PERF
"I didn't say anything like that." (Chinese: 我没有说过这样的话)
Future aspect
The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,
The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,
Bhoek
carry
noms
water
guu
for the purpose of
roengx
cook
tax.
rice
"bring the water (used) for cooking" (Chinese: 打水煮饭)
Others
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,
Duuengx
to let/to allow
hou
I
cat
wear
zuufanx.
a short while
"Let me wear it (for) a short while." (Chinese: 给我穿一下子)
Verbs as predicates
Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,
Nominal verbs
Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,
Uu-laix
NMLZ-plow
hauux
that
dax
field
hou.
my
"The field that has been plowed is mine." (Chinese: 那犁过的是我的田)
Uu-buuen
NMLZ-come
hauux
that
ghueng
young brother or sister
dhes.
my
"The one who is coming is my brother/sister." (Chinese: 那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹）)
Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,
Duis
buffalo
neix
this
man
is
uu-duuengx
NMLZ-give
hlausghueng.
relatives
"The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives." (Chinese: 这牛是给亲戚的)
Uu-oep
NMLZ-love
hou
me
man
is
dhangjis
comrade
hou.
my
"The one who loves me is my comrade." (Chinese: 爱我的是我的同志)
Doubling
Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,
Na
he/she
bleuu
hear
bleuu
hear
fan
then
beuu.
go back
"He (only) heard about/of it and went back." (Chinese: 他听了听就回去了)
Kun
PL
hluuekueng
young girl
dzueis
look
dzueis
look
fan
then
fei
walk
hluet
go into
blongs.
house
"The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house." (Chinese: 姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了)
A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,
Modal verbs
Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,
Meuu
You
kiemx
should/must
hei
go
geek
look for
guns.
firewood
"You should look for firewood." (Chinese: 你应该去砍柴)
Meuu
you
guulax
should/must
dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
naus
just
dhiu.
right
"You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right." (Chinese: 你必须这样做才对)
Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g.,
Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,
Meuu
You
gieu
be able to
rien
say/speak
tun
word
Hlai
Li
cas
or
da?
not?
Dhes
I
gieu.
be able to
"Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can." (Chinese: 你能说黎语吗？我能)
Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g.,
Na
he
bhaeis
already
o
learn (loan word)
kueng
know how
qias
script
Hlai
Li
he.
accent
"He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script." (Chinese: 他已经学会黎文了)
The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.
Verbs of motion
Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,
Na
he/she
tuuen
from
blongs
house
ghoux
run
tuuen
go out
buuen.
come
"He ran out of the house." (Chinese: 他从屋里跑出来)
Zuufanx
a short while
blei
swim
hei,
go to,
zuufanx
a short while
blei
swim
luueng.
go back
"swim back and forth." (Chinese: 一会儿游去，一会儿游回)
Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,
Hou
I
hwanneix
today
bhaeis
already
duengx
carry/bring
heikaen
go up
hwous.
mountain
"I have already brought (it) to the mountain today." (Chinese: 我今天已经送到山上去)
Pasdza
Father
ghuis
lead/direct
na
he/she
heihluet
go into
hwous
mountain
hloek.
deep
"Father took him into the remote mountains." (Chinese: 父亲带他进入深山)
Pasbhanghlauux
name of a man
fan
then
beuuluueng
come back
blongs.
home
"Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home." (Chinese: Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去)
Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,
The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,
But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Gha
We
uengxtoengs
everyone
bhaeisbhaeis
all
ruus
all
man
are
uxaeu
people
Dongxgok.
China
"All of us are Chinese." (Chinese: 咱们大家都是中国人)
Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.
Reciprocal verbs
When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,
Duis
Water buffalo
tut'toengs.
collide with each other
"The buffaloes collided with each other." (Chinese: 牛互相碰撞)
Na
He/she
hlaus
two
zuen
CL
oeptoengs
love each other
dhat.
truly
"The two of them love each other very much." (Chinese: 他们两人很相爱)
Nouns and verbs
Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
- "to wear"
- kienx (for wearing a necklace);
- mieng (for wearing earrings);
- ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
- pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
- cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
- "noise"
- roeng (from an insect or bird);
- vuns (from a dog);
- hyoen (from a rooster);
- ngwaety (from a human)
Adjectives
Describing the characteristics of a person or thing
- 【hleny，好】: good
- 【reek，坏】: bad, not good
- 【kaeix，冷】: cold
- 【fous/faus，热】: hot
- 【dza，老】: old
- 【bluuek，年轻】: young
- 【hloek，深】: deep
- 【tuuens，浅】: shallow
- others
Describing the forms/attributes of thing
- 【long，大】: big, large
- 【enyx，小】: small
- 【peek，高】: tall, high
- 【tauus，矮】: short
- 【daeus，长】: long
- 【taty，短】: short
- others
Describing the state of actions or emotions
- 【dzuuns，快】: quick
- 【dais，慢】: slow
- 【hluengs，松】: loose
- 【guung，紧】: tight
- 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
- 【heen，容易】: easy
- others
Basic rules for adjectives
Use of adjectives
In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.
As a predicate
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,
Zuu
One
hom
CL
coem
fruit
hauux
that
long
big/large
baisias.
very much
"That fruit (is) large!" (Chinese: 那一个果子很大)
As an attribute
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,
As an adverbial
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,
As a complement
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,
Adverbs
An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,
Comparison
In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.
Comparative degree
Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
peek
tall
dhuas
more than
hluuekbaiskaux.
daughter
"The mother is taller than her daughter." (Chinese: 母亲高过女儿)
If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,
Superlative degree
Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,
Baiscuty
Youngest daughter
duix
most
hlenymuuen.
beautiful
"The youngest daughter is most beautiful." (Chinese: 幺妹最漂亮)
According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.
Others
"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,
Zuu
One
kuuengx
CL
cai
tree
neix
this
peek
tall
zuugit.
a little bit
"This three is just a little bit taller." (Chinese: 这棵树高一点)
Nominal adjectives
Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,
Kai
Chicken
uu-long
the big one
hauux
that
man
is
guu
POSS
dhes.
me
"That big chicken is mine." (Chinese: 那只大的鸡是我的)
Doubling
Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic. When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,
(When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)
Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,
Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,
Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,
li-loek
INT-dark
"pitch-dark" (Chinese: 黑漆漆)
gu-goeks
INT-concave
"full of bumps and holes/uneven" (Chinese: 黑漆漆)
Duplicated suffix
Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,
kaeu-laepplaepp
white-something looks bright
"something is so white as to be bright" (Chinese: 亮晶晶)
Small and large
The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
| "enyx" + noun | noun + "enyx" |
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
| "long" + noun | noun + "long" |
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,
bais-fun
big rain
"heavy rain" (Chinese: 大雨)
bais-kuuengxcai
big tree
"big tree" (Chinese: 大树)
Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,
If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.
Numbers
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.
Cardinal numbers
Basic numbers units
- 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
- 【hlaus，二】: two
- 【fus，三】: three
- 【caus，四】: four
- 【ba，五】: five
- 【dom，六】: six
- 【tou，七】: seven
- 【ghou，八】: eight
- 【fauus，九】: nine
- 【fuet，十】: ten
- 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
- 【nguen，千】: thousand
- 【vaens，万】: ten thousand
Basic numbers unit combinations
- 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
- 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
- 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
- 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
- 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
- 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
- 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand
With nouns
Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,
However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.
ex:
Meuuda
you
doengs
live
dhuus
in
Bhakgengs
Beijing
zuu
one
boux
year
hei
pass
lo.
EMPH
"You have lived in Beijing for a year." (Chinese: 你们住在北京一年了)
ex:
Na
he
hlaus
two
hwan
day
da
not
kaen
go up
hwous
mountain
geek
search
guns
firewood
lo.
EMPH
"These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood." (Chinese: 他两天不上山砍柴了)
Doubling
Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,
ex:
Zaux
have
nguen
thousand
nguen
thousand
vaens
ten thousand
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
buuen.
come
"There are thousands of people coming." (Chinese: 有千千万万的人来)
Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,
ex:
Zaux
have
jieng
form
nguen
thousand
jieng
form
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
hei.
go
"There are thousands of people going." (Chinese: 有成千成万的人去)
ex:
Zuu
one
nguen
thousand
zuu
one
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
ngan
all
qieng
desire
fas
sky
fun.
rain
"Thousands of people look forward to the rain." (Chinese: 千千万万的人都盼望天下雨)
One
There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.
The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.
The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,
The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,
ex:
zuu
one
vaens
ten hundred
zuu
one
nguen
thousand
ceuus/zeuus
one
fuet
ten
ceuus/zeuus
one
"eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)" (Chinese: 一万一千零一十一)
However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,
The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,
ex:
lax
one
nguen
thousand
dom
six
ghwaen
hundred
(=
(=
zuu
one
nguen
thousand
dom
six
ghwaen)
hundred)
"one thousand six hundred (1600)" (Chinese: 一千六百)
Ten
There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.
First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.
"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.
"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,
However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,
Zero
In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,
However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,
ex:
fus
three
nguen
thousand
loms
again
hlaus
two
fuet
ten
(hom)
(CLF)
"three thousand and twenty (3020)" (Chinese: 三千零二十（个）)
Rules for large numbers
In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,
(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,
Ordinal numbers
In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child-head-to plant
"the first born child" (usually, it means "son"; Chinese: 老大（长子）)
hluuek-tom
child-middle
"the child(ren) in the middle" (Chinese: 老二，老三…)
hluuek-cuty
child-tail
"the youngest child" (Chinese: 老幺)
When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,
hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa
child-man-head-to plant
=
=
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child-head-to plant
"the first born son" (Chinese: 长子)
hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa
child-woman-head-to plant
=
=
hluuek-baiskaux-long
child-woman-big
"the first born daughter" (Chinese: 大女儿)
Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).
Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,
pas-tom
M-middle
"the son in the middle" (Chinese: 次子)
bais-cuty
F-tail
"the youngest daughter" (Chinese: 幺女)
When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,
To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
Counting with ordinal numbers
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
- 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
- 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
- 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
- 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
- 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
- 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
- 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
- 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
- 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
- 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth
Counting the passage of years, months, days, or time
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
- year
- 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
- 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
- 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
- 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
- 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
- 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
- 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
- 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
- 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
- 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
- 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
- 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
- day
- 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
- 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
- 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
- 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
- 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
- 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
- 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
- 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
- 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
- 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
- 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
- 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,
- 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
- 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
- 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
- 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
- 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
- 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
- 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
- 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
- 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
- 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
- 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
- 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December
The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,
- 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
- 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
- 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
- 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
- ..........
- 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
- 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
- ..........
- 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
- 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month
Number of Approximation
With sequential numbers
In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,
Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.
With "probably"
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,
The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,
loepp
probably
zaux
have
tou
seven
fuet
ten
ceuus
one
kuuengx
CL.tree
"probably have seventy-one (trees)" (Chinese: 大约有七十一棵)
With "more than"
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,
The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,
Na
he
loepp
probably
zaux
have
fuet
ten
dza
surplus
boux
year
da
not
buuen
come
he.
EMPH
"He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years." (Chinese: 他大约有十余年没来了)
The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,
Zuu
one
hom
CL
as
watermelon
neix
this
loepp
probably
fuet
ten
dza
surplus
gins.
CL, about 500 g
"This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins." (Chinese: 这个西瓜大约有十多斤)
Small amounts
There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,
The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,
zuutom
some
hei
go
zuutom
some
buuen
come
"Some (people) go, some (people) come." (Chinese: 一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来)
Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half", e.g.,
Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,
Mansnyoengx
only
zaux
have
gei
several
zuen
CL
aeu
man
buuen.
come
"Only a few people come (less than ten)" (Chinese: 只有几个人来)
Large amounts
The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,
Bhous
village
na
he
hauux
that
hloei
many
duis
water buffalo
dhat.
very
"There are a lot of buffalo in his village." (Chinese: 他那个村牛很多)
Dhuix
team
fa
we
neix
this
zaux
have
uxaeu
man
hloeihloei.
so many
"We have so many people on this team." (Chinese: 我们这个队有许多人)
When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,
Meuu
you
zaux
have
hloeiras
how many
zuen
CL
hluuekghueng?
younger sister or brother
"How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?" (Chinese: 你有多少个弟弟妹妹？)
Classifiers
Classifiers that modify nouns
Common classifiers
• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,
zuu hom waeu
one classifier bowl
"一个碗, a bowl."
• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,
hlaus zuen bhiengs
two classifier soldier
"两个士兵, two soldiers"
• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,
zuu laus hluuek
one classifier child
"一个男孩, a boy"
• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,
hlaus hauus hluuek
two classifier child
"两个女孩, two girls"
• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,
fus lang kai
three classifier chicken
"三只鸡, three chickens"
• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,
caus kuuengx cai
four classifier tree
"四棵树, four trees"
• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,
ba fans veengs
five classifier shirt/top
"五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses"
• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,
hlaus hyax kous
two classifier pants
"两条裤子, two pairs of pants"
• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,
zuu ruet riens
one classifier the traditional Hlai skirt
"一条筒裙, a skirt"
• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,
zuu tos veengs kous
one classifier shirt/top pants
"一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom"
• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,
zuu tut veengs
one classifier shirt/top
"一套衣服, a suit of clothes"
• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,
zuu dhanx dhoei
one classifier rope
"一根绳子, a rope"
dom dhanx noms
six classifier river
"六条河, six rivers"
• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,
tou viens noeng duis
seven classifier skin water buffalo
"七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides"
• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,
hlaus rueis aek bou
two classifier meat pig
"两块猪肉, two slabs of pork"
fus rueis noeng loei
three classifier skin muntjak
"三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide"
• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,
hlaus ban gas
two classifier horse
"两匹马, two horses"
• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,
zuu pous van
one classifier earth
"一堆土, a pile of earth"
zuu pous guns
one classifier firewood
"一堆柴, a pile of firewood"
• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，
zuu kun muens
one classifier rice in the husk
"一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice"
• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,
zuu baep fan
one classifier seedling
"一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings"
• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，
zuu hax muens
one classifier rice
"一把稻子, one handful of rice"
• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,
zuu bhaeng blongs
one classifier house
"一间屋子, a building/house"
zuu bhaeng qiafei
one classifier train
"一节火车厢, a box car"
• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,
zuu bhaengs veji
one classifier bullet
"一梭/颗子弹, a bullet"
zuu bhaengs dienx
one classifier letter
"一封信, a letter"
• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,
zuu bhak gias
one classifier glass
"一块玻璃, a piece of glass"
zuu bhak qias
one classifier paper
"一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard"
• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,
zuu bheek ueix
one classifier picture/painting
"一幅画, a picture/painting"
• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,
zuu bhueks ngwiengs
one classifier straw
"一把稻草, a handful of straw"
• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,
hlaus bhui qias
two classifier book
"两本书, two books"
• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,
zuu cax hwous
one classifier mountain
"一座山, a mountain"
• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,
zuu ceuus bhit
one classifier pen
"一支笔, a pen"
• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,
zuu cueng guty
one classifier needle
"一枚针, a needle"
• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,
zuu dhien van bheuudaeis
one classifier land/earth vegetables
"一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables"
zuu dhien dhop
one classifier cloth
"一幅布, a piece of cloth"
• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,
bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.
Village our have two ten classifier households
"我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village."
• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,
zuu gas qia
one classifier car
"一辆车, a car"
zuu gas vabheny
one classifier airplane
"一架飞机, an airplane"
• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,
fus ghoeix cai
three classifier tree
"三行树, three rows of trees"
zuu ghoeix qias
one classifier word/letter
"一行字, one line of words"
• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.
• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.
• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,
zuu hwoens guns
one classifier firewood
"一堆柴火, a pile of firewood"
zuu hwoens dax
one classifier field
"一块水田, a field"
• 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,
fus hluut laeus
three classifier the floor in building
"三层楼, three floors"
Van neix zaux fus hluut na.
Land this have three classifier thickness
"这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers."
• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,
zuu ka cai
one classifier tree
"一枝树枝, a branch"
• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,
zuu kok dhety
one classifier mushroom
"一棵菌子, a mushroom"
• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,
zuu kuen zuugoems
one classifier shoe
"一只鞋, a shoe"
zuu koen fiek
one classifier classifier
"半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)."
• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,
zuu kou ghoeis hla
one classifier net fish
"一张鱼网, a fishing net"
• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,
zuu liemx coembhem
one classifier grapefruit
"一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit"
• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,
hlaus leep qias
two classifier paper
"两层纸, two sheets of paper"
• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects
• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)
• 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,
neix zuu moux hleny
This one classifier good
"这一种好, This is a good one."
zaux hlenyhloei moux muens
have many classifier rice
"有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice."
• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,
zuu paeng zuuloengs
one classifier betel nut
"一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut"
• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,
zuu pienx gas
one classifier knife
"一把刀, a knife"
• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,
zuu puens cai
one classifier tree
"一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)"
zuu puens bhit
one classifier pen
"一支笔, a pen"
• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,
zuu raeis dax
one classifier field
"一片田, a field"
• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,
zuu ras gans
one classifier grass
"一棵草, a blade of grass"
• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,
zuu rok ang
one classifier field
"一块刀耕地, a field"
(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)
fus rok pos
three classifier hillside field
"三块旱地, three fields on the hillside"
• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects
• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,
caty zuu taeu liem
buy one classifier sickle
"买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles"
zuu taeu dzeeng
one classifier goat/sheep
"一群羊, a flock of goats"
• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,
zuu tuueng rik
one classifier rake
"一把耙, a rake"
• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,
zuu vaen hweek
one classifier banana
"一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas"
or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,
ceek fuet vaen
pestle ten classifier
"舂十下, pestle ten times"
• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,
zuu vans qia
one classifier paper
"一张纸, a piece of paper"
zuu vans diets
one classifier picture
"一幅照片, a photograph"
• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,
zuu voei ghei
one classifier rice
"一桶米, a bucket of rice"
• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,
zuu vong coemcai
one classifier fruit
"一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit"
Classifiers for measurement
• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,
zuu mous dax
one classifier field
"一亩田, one mu of field"
• 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
zuu dho dhop
one classifier cloth or textile
"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"
• 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
hlaus qieux dhop
two classifier cloth or textile
"两尺布, two feet of cloth"
• 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
fus cuns dhop
three classifier cloth or textile
"三寸布, three inches of cloth"
• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.
• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,
zuu hwuup daeus
one classifier length
"一拃长, one zuo length"
• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.
• 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
• 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
• 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
• 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
• 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."
Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs
• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu kop ghei
one classifier rice
"一捧米, one scoop of rice"
• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu koens hya
one classifier thatch or couch grass
"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"
• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
zuu bhiek guns
one classifier firewood/sticks
"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"
• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu zeems nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."
• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
jims zuugit nyaeus
pick up a little of salt
"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"
hlaus jims nyaeus
two classifier salt
"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"
• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
zuu fiek guns
one classifier firewood
"一担柴a bundle of firewood"
zuu fiek zuugoems
one classifier shoe
"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"
• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu gok noms
one classifier water
"一杯水, a cup of water"
zuu gok ghweis
one classifier oil
"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"
• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu waeu tax
one classifier cooked rice
"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"
• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fuet ghou boux
one ten eight classifier
"十八岁, 18 years old"
• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
hlaus blaem cai
two classifier tree
"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"
• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
zuu comx ghei
one classifier rice
"一袋米, a bag of rice"
• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu ding ghei
one classifier rice
"一升米, a barrel of rice"
• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dhak noms
one classifier water
"一滴水, a drop of water"
• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dzuen hweek
one classifier banana
"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"
• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fas fun
one classifier rain/shower
"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"
• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fiens gwaek
one classifier hoe
"一把锄头, a hoe"
• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fok gom neix
one classifier region this
"这块地方, this region"
• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
hlaus gieps hya
two. classifier thatch
"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"
• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guengs ghei
one classifier hoe
"一筐米, a basket of rice"
• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guety hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu neny hla
one classifier fish
"一串鱼, a string of fish"
• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
zuu neny ceeng
one classifier flower
"一枝花, a flower"
• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghongs hweek
one classifier banana
"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"
• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hoep cuax
one classifier matches
"一盒火柴, a box of matches"
• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hwang zuu hwang noms
one classifier one classifier water
"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"
• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
zuu hwaeng man
one classifier a general term for potato
"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"
• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
zuu hwoen dax
one classifier field
"一丘田, a field";
zuu hyoen haeus
one classifier quilt
"一床被子, a quilt"
• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
zuu op guns
one classifier firewood
"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"
• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,
fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe
We come here already have three classifier accent
"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."
• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ruek bou
one classifier pig/hug
"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"
zuu ruek kai
one classifier chicken
"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"
zuu ruek aenx
one classifier cake
"一盒点心, a box of cakes"
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
zuu ruek dhou
one classifier urine
"一泡尿, a stream of urine"
• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.
Already do one classifier demon
"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."
• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu taeng noms
one classifier water
"一桶水, a bucket of water"
• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
zuu tiep bheuucai
one classifier vegetable
"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"
• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu tuek dza
one classifier cigarettes
"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"
• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
zuu veeng
one classifier
"一户(人家), a household."
• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen zaemx
one hundred classifier
"一百步, one hundred steps"
• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
zuu zeeng muens
one classifier rice
"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"
zuu zeeng nyaeus
one classifier salt
"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"
Classifiers for modifying verbs
• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,
taeix zuu faei
hit/beat one classifier
"打一下, to hit/beat once"
• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,
na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis
he/she already say/speak two classifier
"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."
• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,
hei zuu guen
go one classifier
"去一次, go (there) one time"
• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,
bhaeis fun zuu caety
Already rain one classifier
"下了一阵雨, It already showered."
kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety
Chicken already cock crow three classifier
"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."
• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,
tak zuu pienx
study one classifier
"读一遍, read one time"
• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,
zuu caeu fun
one classifier rain
"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"
zuu caeu hwoet
one classifier wind
"一阵风, a gust of wind"
• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,
zuu caens tax
one classifier rice
"一顿饭, a meal"
• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,
teeks zuu kok
kick one classifier
"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"
• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,
gaenys zuu boms
bite one classifier
"咬一口, to take a bite"
• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,
lax zuu feek tax
eat one classifier rice
"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"
na zuu feek tun ruus da rien
he/she one classifier word even not say
"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."
• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
gaux zuu pui
sleep one classifier
"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"
Basic rules for classifiers
Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g., Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.
bird one classifier one classifier fly
"鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups."
Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g., Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!
one classifier dog this big really/truly
"这只狗真大！This dog is really big!"
Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g., Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux
read aloud three classifier= three classifier read
"读三遍，read three times"
Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix
hit one classifier = one classifier hit
"打一次，to hit/punch one time"
In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g., Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.
I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier
"我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one."
Pronouns
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
Personal pronouns
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":[24]
- The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
- When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
- Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
- Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
- Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
- When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,
Q: 谁在那里？A: 我呀！
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
A:
A:
Hou
I
res!
accent
Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I.
- If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,
Q: 谁在那里？A: 我嘛！还有谁？
Q:
Q:
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
A:
A:
Dhes
Me
vi!
accent!
Asras?
Who?
"Q: Who is there? A: (it's) I! Who else?"
- When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,
露脸给我瞧；露眼睛给我见
Tuuen
Go out
dhang
face
duuengx
give
hou
me
nga;
look
tuuen
go out
ca
eye
duuengx
give
hou
me
laeis
see
"Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes."
- When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
- In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,
ex:
他打小鸟
Na
he
taeix
hit
hluuek
child
daty.
bird
"He hit the little bird."
ex:
拿木棍打他
dheuu
take
toencai
stick
taeix
hit
na
him
"take a stick to hit him"
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
ex:
咱们按照他的话去做
Gha
we
vou
follow
tun
words
na
his
hei
to
vuek.
do
"Let's follow his words to do (it)."
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
ex:
这是我自己做的
Neix
this
man
is
hou
I
zuenzauus
self
vuek.
do
"I made it myself."
The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
ex:
这一只鸡是他的
Neix
this
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
man
is
guu na.
his
"This chicken is his."
ex:
这房子是我的
Blongs
house
neix
this
man
is
guu dhes.
mine
"This house is mine."
Demonstrative pronouns
- 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
- 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
- 【max，那】: that; there
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
- 【dhongneix，这】: like this
- 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
- 【hineix，这】: such
- 【hihauux，那】: like that
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
- 【uughwaix，别的】: other
- 【ranx，每】: every
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,
ex:
这是新的衣服
Neix
this
veengs
shirt/top
baen.
new
"This (is) a new dress."
ex:
那是大水牛
Hauux
that
duis
water buffalo
long.
big
"That (is) a big buffalo."
When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,
ex:
那一棵树好得很
Hauux
that
zuu
one
kuuengx
CLF
cai
tree
hleny
good
baisias.
very
"That tree is very good."
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
ex:
这一只鸡肥
Neix
this
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
ghweis.
fat
"This chicken is fat."
ex:
这一只鸡肥，
Zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
neix
this
ghweis.
fat
"This chicken is fat."
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
ex:
这是两只小鸡，
Neix
this
man
are
hlaus
two
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
enyx.
little
"These are two chicks."
The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,
ex:
这样做吗？
Dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
yos?
Q
"Is it done like this?"
ex:
这样的东西好吗？
Gong
stuff
dhongneix
like this
hleny
good
yos?
Q
"Is such a thing as this good?"
ex:
别那样说，
Yous
don't
rien
say
dhonghauux.
like that
"Don't say that."
ex:
你是那样的吗？
Meuu
you
dhonghauux
like that
yos.
Q
"Are you like that?"
There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,
ex:
那一群鸟飞了，
Zuu
one
kun
CLF
daty
bird
hauux
that
bheny
fly
he.
accent
"The flock of birds (is) flying away."
ex:
这些米是谁的？
Zuugit
some
ghei
rice
neix
this
ghei
rice
uuras?
whose
"Whose rice is this?"
When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,
ex:
这只虾大
Buuemx
shrimp
neix
this
long.
big
"This shrimp is big."
ex:
他拿这么多
Na
he
qieus
take
hloei
many/much
neix.
so/such
"He took so much."
ex:
你要这么少
Meuu
you
dheuu
take/want
raux
little/few
hauux.
so/such
"You took/want so little."
When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,
ex:
你要拿什么东西？
Meuu
you
neix
empty word
kweis
want
dheuu
take
gong
stuff
meshes?
what
"What are you going to take?"
ex:
谁找我？
Uuras
who
hauux
empty word
gongx
look for
hou?
me
"Who is looking for me?"
The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,
ex:
每个人吃一个
Ranx
every
zuen
CLF
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CLF
"Everyone eats one."
ex:
每一个人都吃一个
Ranx
every
ranx
every
zuen
CLF
uuaeu
man
ruus
all
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CLF
"Everyone eats one."
The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,
ex:
别的东西
gong
stuff
uughwaix
other
"other stuff"
ex:
别人（他人，不相干的人）
aeu
man
uughwaix
other
"other's"
ex:
有别的没有？
Zaux
have
uughwaix
other
cas
or
da?
not
"Do (you) have (any) other stuff?"
Interrogative pronouns
- 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
- 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
- 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
- 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
- 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
- 【meshes，什么】: What?
- others
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,
ex:
谁找我？
Uuras
who?
gongx
look for
hou?
me
"Who is looking for me?"
ex:
你看见谁？
Meuu
you
laeis
see
uuras?
who?
"Who do you see?"
ex:
他来谁的家？
Na
he
buuen
come
blongs
house
uuras?
who?
"Whose house is he coming to?"
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
ex:
那黄牛是谁的？
Nyiu
cow
max
that
man
is
guu uuras?
whose?
"Whose cow is that?"
ex:
这衣服是谁的？
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
man
is
guu uuras?
whose?
"Whose shirt/top is this?"
The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,
ex:
什么东西最好？
Gong
stuff
meshes
what
vaeu
most
hleny?
good
"What is the best stuff?"
ex:
他要拿什么？
Na
he
kweis
want
dheuu
take
meshes?
what
"What does he want to take?"
The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,
ex:
他在哪里？
Na
he
dhuus
exist
ras?
where?
"Where is he?"
When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
ex:
哪一个房子最大？
Ras
which
zuu
one
hom
CLF
blongs
house
vaeu
most
long?
big
"Which house is the biggest one?"
When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
ex:
这果子有多大？
Coem
fruit
neix
this
long
big
ras?
how
"How big is this fruit?"
The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,
ex:
怎么吃也吃不完，
Dhongras
How
lax
eat
ngan
also
da
not
bhaeis.
finish
"There is more food than we can eat."
ex:
这山栏地怎样种？
Ang
hilly field
neix
this
ghwa
plant
dhongras?
how?
"How is this hilly field to be planted?"
The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,
ex:
你什么时候上街？
Meuu
you
qiras
when
hei
go
qix?
street
"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?"
ex:
他什么时候返校？
Na
he
qiras
when
beuubuuen
go back
ohyaeu?
school
"When is he going back to school?"
The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,
ex:
你有多少，我要多少，
Meuu
you
zaux
have
hloeiras,
how many
hou
I
dheuu
take
hloeiras.
how many
"However many you have, I will take them."
Adverbs
Negation
- 【da，不】: not
- 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
ex:
今天他不去
Hansneix
now
na
he/she
da
not
hei.
go
"Today he won't go."
ex:
这东西坏了，别吃！
Gong
stuff
neix
this
reek
bad
he,
accent
yous
don't
lax.
eat
"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!"
When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,
ex:
他不来
Na
he/she
da
not
buuen.
come
"He won't come."
ex:
他还没来呢
Na
he/she
da
not
buuen
come
zo
EMPH
"He hasn't come yet!"
When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,
ex:
你有球吗？
Meuu
you
zaux
have
kius
ball
da?
Q
"Do you have a ball?"
Degree
- 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
- 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
- 【zangs，太】: too
- 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
- 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
- 【dhat，很】: very
- 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
ex:
最坏
vaeu
most
reek
bad
"worst"
ex:
最美丽
duix
most
hlenymuuen
beautiful
"most beautiful"
ex:
太热
zangs
too
fous
hot
"too hot"
ex:
更好
nguenxges
even
hleny
good
"even better"
ex:
恰恰好
loeppvaix
exactly
hleny
good
"just right"
But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
ex:
很冷
kaeix
cold
dhat
very
"very cold"
ex:
非常快
dzuuns
quick
baisias
very much
"very quick"
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
ex:
快极了
vaeu
most
dzuuns
quick
baisias
very much
"Very, very (extremely) quick"
ex:
他非常穷
Na
he/she
vaeu
most
vaet
poor
baisias
very much
"He is very, very (extremely) poor."
The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
ex:
这件衣服非常好，
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
hleny
good
dhatdhat.
very much
"This shirt/top is a very good one."
Scope, extent, or range
- 【ruus，都】: all
- 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
- 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
- 【mans，仅，只】: only
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
ex:
大家都相信，
Uengxtoengs
everyone
ruus
all
qim.
believe
"Everyone believes that."
ex:
我也做，
Hou
I
ngan
also
vuek.
do
"I also do (that)."
ex:
他只要一个果子，
Na
he/she
mans/nyoengx
only
dheuu
take
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem.
fruit
"He only took one fruit."
These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
ex:
他只有一个孩子，
Na
he/she
mans-nyoengx
only
zaux
have
zuu
one
zuen
CLF
hluuek.
child
"He has only one child."
Timing
- 【bhaeis，已经】: already
- 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
- 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
- 【faets，正在】: in process
- 【dhom，还】: still, yet
- 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
- 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
- others
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,
ex:
他刚刚来，
Na
he/she
naeus naeus
just
buuen.
come
"He has just come."
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
ex:
他刚从家里出去，
Na
he/she
naeus
just
hei
go out
tuuen
from
blongs.
house
"He's just gone out of the house."
ex:
他还没去呢，
Na
he/she
dhom
still
da
not
hei
go
zo.
EMPH
"He hasn't gone yet."
ex:
一进门我就看见他，
Zuughanx
right after
hluet
enter
blongs
house
hou
I
fan
then
laeis
see
na.
he/she
"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him."
ex:
你来到这里了，就别再回去了，
meuu
you
buuen
come
dhaens
to
neix
here
goms
then
bhaeisyous
never/not
hei
go
beuu.
back
"(Since) You came here, don't go back."
ex:
你先说，
Meuu
you
kuenx
first
rien.
say
"You speak first."
However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
ex:
你先说，
Meuu
you
rien
say
kuenx.
first
"You speak first."
Duplication or continuation
- 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
- 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
- 【toengs，互相】: each other
- others
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,
ex:
你再说一遍，
Meuu
you
loms
again
rien
say
zuu
one
gaeis.
CLF
"Repeat that once more."
ex:
他们互相打架了，
Kun
they
taeix
fight
toengs
each other
he.
EMPH
"They fought each other."
The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
ex:
你们别互相打架了！
Meuuda
you.PL
yous
don't
taeix
fight
toengs
each other
as!
EMPH
"Don't fight each other!"
Emphasis or transition
- 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
- 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
- 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
ex:
这样大的树却断了，
Baiscai
big-tree
long
big
neix
such
oms
but
caeu.
break
"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!"
ex:
人家到底为什么骂你？
Aeu
others
naus
emphasis
cas
scold
meuu
you
vuek
do
meshes
what=why?
"Why do people scold you?"
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
ex:
原来他在那里！
Cuuslax
so
na
he/she
dhuus
exist/in
max.
there
"So, there he is!"
Conjunctions
Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases
- 【uengx，和，与】: and
- 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
- 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
- others
That link nouns:
ex:
狗和猪争吃
Ba
dog
ku
and
bou
pig
zestoengs
fight each other
kweis
want
lax
eat
tax.
rice
"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat."
ex:
妻子和丈夫共同学习
Toengsdhun
wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
learn
"A husband and (his) wife study together."
That link pronouns:
ex:
我和你共同干活
Hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengxtoengs
together
vuek
do
gong.
work
"I and you will work together."
That link noun phrases:
ex:
我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐
Hou
I
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu
AUX
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem
fruit
long
big
ku
and
hlaus
two
hom
CLF
guengs.
basket
"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets."
That link verb-object phrases:
ex:
我上街吃饭和喝酒
Dhes
I
hei
go
qix
street
lax
eat
tax
rice
ku
and
lax
eat
bhiengx.
sticky rice wine
"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine."
These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,
ex:
我和你和他去买东西
Uengx
and
hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengx
and
na
he
hei
go
caty
buy
gong.
stuff
"I and you and he will go shopping."
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
ex:
母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打
Baisdza
Mother
zok
rebuke
nyuek
and
cas,
scold,
pasdza
father
cas
scold
nyuek
and
taeix.
beat
"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat."
Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,
ex:
那头水牛大而且肥
Duis
water buffalo
hauux
that
long
big
hloeis
and
ghweis.
fat
"That buffalo is big and fat."
ex:
这条路宽而且直
Guen
road
neix
this
bheeng
wide
loms
and
muety.
straight
"This road is wide and straight."
Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases
- 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
- 【cas，或者，还是】: or
- 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
- others
ex:
你躺或者坐着都可以
Meuu
You
gaux
lie down
cuus
or
zongs
sit
ngan
also
loepp.
allow
"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down."
ex:
你去还是不去？
Meuu
You
hei
go
cuus
or
da？
not
"Are you going or not?"
ex:
我这件衣服好吗？
Veengs
shirt/top
dhes
my
neix
this
hleny
good
cas
or
da？
not
"Does my dress/top look good?"
ex:
近来你好吗？
naeusneix
Recently
meuu
you
hleny
good
cas
or
da？
not
"How have you been recently?"
Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
ex:
他去还是我去？
Na
He
hei
go
cuusnaus
or
hou
I
hei？
go
"Is he going or should I go?"
ex:
你要买菠萝还是菠萝蜜？
Meuu
You
kweis
want
caty
buy
rasbluenx
pineapple
cuusnaus
or
caty
buy
lauxmety？
jackfruit
"Do you want pineapple or jackfruit?"
Link a single subordinate clause
- 【hans，因为】: because
- 【dosdzis，所以】: so
- 【laeis，如果】: if
- 【tom，但是】: but
- 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
- others
ex:
因为他不来，所以我不去了，
Hans
Because
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come,
hou
I
da
not
hei
go
bhe.
accent
"Because he didn't come, I didn't go."
ex:
因为他有知识，所以他懂道理，
Na
He
kueng
know
caqias,
script
dosdzis
so
na
he
kuengghweuu
know
li.
principle
"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle."
ex:
如果你去，我就等你，
Laeis
If
meuu
you
hei,
go
hou
I
goms
then
dzoeng
wait
meuu.
you
"If you go, then I'll wait for you."
ex:
以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了，
qimax
Before
gha
we
vaet
poor
baisias,
very much
tom
but
hansneix
now
da
not
dhong
like
qihauux
before
bhe.
accent
"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before."
ex:
你去，不然他去，
Meuu
You
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
na
he
hei.
go
"You go, otherwise he'll go."
The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,
ex:
他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know
laix
how
dax,
plow
uuloms
field
gieu
but also
kieux
know how
muens.
reap rice
"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest."
ex:
你走路去，或者坐车去，
Meuu
You
fei
walk
guen
road
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
zongs
sit
qia
car
hei.
go
"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)."
Link two or more clauses
ex:
马不但吃草，而且喝水，
Gas
Horse
dacaux
not only
lax
eat
gans,
grass
lax
eat
uengx
also
noms.
water
"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water."
ex:
他不但打你，而且打我，
Na
He
dacaux
not only
taeix
beat
meuu,
you
taeix
beat
koms
even
hou.
me
"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me."
ex:
我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹，
Dhes
I
dacaux
not only
zaux
have
pasghueng,
younger brother,
zaux
have
toep
even
baisghueng.
younger sister
"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)."
Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,
ex:
这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草，
Duis
buffalo
neix
this
danyoengx
not only
long
big
kaux,
strength
uuloms
but also
doengs
live
gans.
grass
"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly."
ex:
他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know
laix
how
dax,
plow
uuloms
field
gieu
but also
kieux
know how
muens.
reap rice
"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice."
ex:
因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来，
Hans
Because
uupans
yesterday
fas
sky
fun,
rain
dosdzis
so
hou
I
gax
cannot
buuen.
come
"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come."
Relationships between linked elements
Parallel relationship
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,
ex:
我和你去，
Hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
hei.
go
"I'll go with you."
ex:
我和你和他去干工，
Uengx
And
hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengx
and
na
he
hei
go
vuek
do
gong.
work
"I will go to work with you and him."
ex:
妻子和丈夫共同学习，
Toengsdhun
Wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
study/learn
"The husband and wife study together."
ex:
我上街买上衣和买裤子，
Hou
I
hei
go
qix
street
caty
buy
veengs
shirt/top
ku
and
caty
buy
kous.
pants
"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants.
ex:
我给他一只鸡和一只狗，
Dhes
I
duuengx
give
na
him
lax
auxiliary
zuu
one
lang
CLF
kai
chicken
ku
and
zuu
one
lang
CLF
ba.
dog
"I gave him a chicken and a dog."
Progressive relationship
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
ex:
他吃一口又一口，
Na
He
lax
eat
zuu
one
feek
bite
loms
and
zuu
one
feek.
bite
"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite."
ex:
这东西又酸又辣，
Gong
stuff
neix
this
fas
sour
hloeis
and
ghety.
hot
"This is sour and hot."
ex:
他不但骂我，而且骂你，
Na
He
dacaux
not only
cas
scold
hou,
me
cas
scold
koms/uengx
even/and
meuu.
you
"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you."
In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
Optional relationship
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
ex:
你要去捕鱼还是不去？
Meuuda
You
kweis
want
hei
go
geek
look for
hla
fish
cuus
or
da?
not
"Are you going to go fishing or not?"
ex:
咱们抬还是扛？
Gha
We
caem
carry by hand
cuus
or
bhiek
carry by shoulder
les?
Q
"Will we carry (it) with our hands or on our shoulders?"
ex:
你要拿荔枝还是椰子？
Meuu
You
kweis
want
dheuu
take
zuucoeis
litchi
cuusnaus
or
dheuu
take
zuuyunx？
coconut
"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?"
Transitional relationship
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
ex:
他不是黎族，但会讲黎话，
Na
He
ghwaix
is not
Hlai,
Li
tom
but
kueng
know
rien
say
tun
language
Hlai
Li
"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect."
ex:
他愿意去，但没有时间，
Na
He
kweis
want
hei,
go
oms
but
wenysnaeis
no
hwan
day
"He's willing to go, but there's no time."
Conditional relationship
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,
ex:
不管他怎样说，我都去，
Dalunx
no matter what
na
he
rien
say
dhongras,
how
hou
I
ngan
also
hei
go
"No matter what he says, I'll go."
ex:
如果他不来，我就去了，
Laeis
If
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come
hou
I
goms
then
hei
go
lo
accent
"If he doesn't come, then I'll go."
Causal relationship
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
ex:
我不去，因为有病，
Dhes
I
da
not
hei,
go
hans
because
zaux
have
cok
sickness
"I'm not going because I'm sick."
ex:
天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，
Fas
Sky
fun,
rain
yous
don't
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
ia
gain
cok
sickness
"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick."
Prepositions
Place, direction, or time
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
- 【tuuen，从】: from
- 【ueks，里】: inside
ex:
你住在那里哟！
Meuu
You
doengs
live
dhuus
in
max
there
hyo!
accent
"You live there!"
ex:
你从哪里来？
Meuu
You
buuen
come
tuuen
from
ras?
where?
"Where do you come from?"
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
ex:
你住在那里哟！
Meuu
You
dhuus
in
max
there
doengs
live
hyo!
accent
"You live there!"
ex:
你从哪里来？
Meuu
You
tuuen
from
ras
where
buuen?
come
"Where do you come from?"
The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,
ex:
坐在那里面
zongs
Sit
dhuus
in
ueks
inside
hauux
there
"Sit in (inside) there"
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,
ex:
这屋子里面暗得很
Ueks
Inside
blongs
house
neix
this
mangshais
dark
baisias.
very
"Inside of the house is very dark."
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
- 【dhaens，到】: until
- 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
- 【dhuas，过】: through
- 【buu，在】: on, in
- 【beeng，沿】: along
ex:
客人等你到晚上
Bhousaeu
Guest
dzoeng
wait
meuu
you
dhaens
until
cop.
night
"The guest(s) waited for you until night."
ex:
我们到学校去
Fa
We
hei
go
zok
to/toward
ohyaeu.
school
"We are going to the school."
ex:
人们络绎不绝走过村边
Aeu
People
fei
walk
reuureuu
back and forth
dhuas
along
ngaeix
edge
bhous.
village
"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village."
ex:
叫他穿在身上
Ghais
Tell
na
him
pien
wear
buu
on
huen.
body
"Tell him to wear it."
ex:
鸟叫在甘蔗园篱笆东边
Daty
Bird
roeng
chirping
buu
on
peek
east
goep
fence
maeis.
sugarcane
"The bird is chirping on the eastern fence of the sugar cane garden."
ex:
沿着河边走
fei
walk
beeng
along
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
"walk along the river bank"
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【niens，沿】: along
ex:
他沿着那条路去学校
Na
He
niens
along
guen
road
hauux
that
hei
go
ohyaeu.
school
"He traveled along that road to school."
However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after averb, e.g.,
ex:
沿着田埂走
fei
walk
niens
along
hyoen
ridge
dax
field
"walk along the ridge of the field"
Prepositions related to method
- 【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)
ex:
他们按劳动的强弱来分配
Kunaeu
They
aens
according to
laeustaeng
work
gieu
strong
ku
and
gax
weak
buuen
come
gauxtoengs.
distribute
"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers."
Prepositions related to reason, or purpose
- 【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
- 【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【cuuslax，由于】: because of
ex:
心烦由于你
vuuengx
disturb
hwoek
heart
cuuslax
because of
meuu
you
"upset because of you"
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.
ex:
牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走
Veeng
Master
duis
water buffalo
kweis
want
beuu
go back
fan
then
taeix
hit
duis,
water buffalo
guu ghais
in order that
duis
water buffalo
dzuuns
fast/quick
fei.
walk
"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast."
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".
Prepositions related to object
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【toep，连】: even
- 【koms，连】: even
- 【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
- 【ku，对，和】: to
ex:
他穷得连睡的地方也没有
Na
He
vaet
poor
toep/koms
even
fok
place
gaux
to sleep
ngan
also
wenysnaeis.
no
"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep."
ex:
和他对唱山歌
vuektun
sing
goem
with
na.
him
"Sing a song with him."
ex:
母亲对他说
Baisdza
Mother
rien
say
ku
to
na.
him
"(His) mother told him."
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
ex:
母亲对他说
Baisdza
Mother
ku
to
na
him
rien.
say
"(His) mother told him."
When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
- 【dhuas，过】: than
ex:
幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮
Ghueng
Younger sister
baiscuty
youngest
hlenymuuen
beautiful
dhuas
than
kun
plural
hluuekkauus.
older sister
"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters."
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【uengx，和，跟】: with
ex:
他跟小孩打架
Na
He
uengx
with
enyxlauux
kids
taeixtoengs.
fight
"He fought with the child(ren)."
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
ex:
他来跟小弟玩
Na
He
buuen
come
doengs
play
uengx
with
hluuekpasghueng.
young brother
"He came to play with (his) little brother."
Prepositions related to agent
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【ia，被】: by
- 【ghoems，被】: by
- 【dheuu，把】: by using
ex:
他被狗咬了
Na
He
ia
by
ba
dog
gaenys
bite
he!
accent
"He was bitten by a dog!"
ex:
我被他打了
Hou
I
ghoems
by
na
him
taeix
hit
bhe.
accent
"I was hit by him."
ex:
母亲把米煮成饭
Baisdza
Mother
dheuu
use
ghei
rice
roengx
cook
tax.
rice
"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice."
Auxiliary words
Structural auxiliary words
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"
When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,
ex:
这东西是你的
Gong
Stuff
neix
this
guu
belong to
meuu.
you
"This is yours."
ex:
那房子是我的
Blongs
House
hauux
that
man
is
guu
belong to
dhes.
me
"That house is mine."
However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,
ex:
这件衣服是她的
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
veengs
shirt/top
na.
he/she
"This dress is hers."
The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,
ex:
红的好
Uu-ghaens
AUX-red
hleny.
good
"The red one is good."
ex:
我吃小的
Hou
I
lax
eat
uu-enyx.
the small one
"I will eat the small one."
ex:
这是吃的东西
Neix
This
man
is
gong
stuff
uu-lax.
AUX-eat
"This is something that can be eaten."
Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,
ex:
冷得发抖
Kaeix
Cold
dhaens
so as to
nyan.
shiver
"It is so cold as to (make one) shiver."
ex:
酸得流口水
Fas
Sour
dhaens
so as to
maeu
drool
nomshloei.
saliva
"It is so sour as to (make one) drool."
ex:
他胖得难走路
Na
He
ghweis
fat
dhaens
so as to
gax
cannot
fei
walk
guen.
road
"He is so fat that it's hard (for him) to walk."
ex:
他去到河边就回来
Na
He
hei
go
dhaens
arrive
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
fan
then
beuuluung.
come back
"He went to the riverside and later he will come back."
Past tense auxiliary word
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
ex:
我去过北京
Hou
I
hei
go
dhuas
AUX
Bhakgengs.
Beijing
"I have been to Beijing."
ex:
你见过他吗？
Meuu
You
laeis
see
dhuas
AUX
na
he
cuus
or
da?
not?
"Have you seen him?"
ex:
我想过这个问题
Hou
I
qieng
think
dhuas
AUX
muixdhoeis
question
neix.
this
"I thought about this question."
Acting-receiving auxiliary words
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
ex:
我哥哥给他一只狗
Pashlaus
Older brother
hou
my
duuengx
give
na
him
lax
AUX
zuu
one
lang
CLF
ba.
dog
"My brother gave him a dog."
ex:
你教我黎话
Meuu
You
dun
teach
hou
me
lax
AUX
tun
language
Hlai.
Li
"You teach me the Li's language."
ex:
我讲给他
Hou
I
rien
say
duuengx
to
na
him
lax.
AUX
"I spoke to him."
The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
ex:
他给我一个水果
Na
He
duuengx
give
hou
me
dheuu
AUX
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem.
fruit
"He gave me one fruit."
ex:
这一个椰子给你
Zuu
One
hom
CLF
zuuyunx
coconut
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu.
AUX
"This coconut is for you."
Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.
Accent markers
Indicative mood
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"
【lo, 了】
This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
ex:
天要下雨了
Fas
sky
fun
rain
lo.
accent
"It's going to rain."
ex:
你这样做就不对了
Meuu
you
dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
goms
then
da
not
dhiu
right
lo.
accent
"It is not right for you to do this."
【bhe, 啊】
This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
ex:
天（已经）下雨了
Fas
sky
fun
rain
bhe.
accent
"It is raining (it rained)."
ex:
那个坏人死了
Aeu
person
reek
bad
hauux
that
hlaeux
die
bhe.
accent
"That bad man died."
ex:
那甘薯好吃啊
Man
potato
hauux
that
hleny
good
lax
eat
bhe.
accent
"That sweet potato was delicious."
【ve/vi, 的, 了】
This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
ex:
这字不是我写的
Qias
letter
neix
this
ghwaix
is not
hou
I
taeis
write
ve.
accent
"This word is not what I wrote."
ex:
你给我就行了
Meuu
you
duuengx
give
hou
I
goms
then
bhaeis
finish
ve.
accent
"Give (it to) me, then it's done."
【he，啦】
This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
ex:
我做完工了
Dhes
I
vuek
do
gong
work
bhaeis
finished
he.
accent
"I finished (my) job."
【zo/zu，还…呢】
This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
ex:
鱼还活着呢
Hla
Fish
dhom
still
hlou
alive
zo.
accent
"The fish is still alive."
ex:
他还没做呢
Na
He
dhom
still
da
not
vuek
do
zo!
accent
"He hasn't done it yet."
ex:
天还没下雨呢
Fas
Sky
da
not
fun
rain
zo!
accent
"It hasn't rained yet."
Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,
ex:
那个坏人怎么还没死呢！
Aeu
person
reek
bad
hauux
that
da
not
hlaeux
die
zuho!
accent
"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?"
ex:
我什么都没看见呢，
Hou
I
da
not
laeis
see
meshes
anything
zunex!
accent
"I haven't seen anything!"
【rus，呢】
This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
ex:
今天他不来呢
Hwanneix
today
na
he
da
not
buuen
come
rus.
accent
"He won't come today."
ex:
我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢，
Fa
we
neix
this
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
zans
up.
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
luei,
down
da
not
laeis
see
rus.
accent
"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see."
Interrogative mood
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".
【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
ex:
你不去干活吗？
Meuu
you
da
not
hei
go
vuek
do
gong
work
hos?
Q
"Don't you go to work?"
ex:
今天他不来吗？
Hwanneix
today
na
he
da
not
buuen
come
yos.
Q
"Isn't he coming today?"
ex:
这是你的吗？
Neix
this
man
is
guu meuu
yours
os?
Q
"Is this yours?"
ex:
他是你弟弟吗？
Na
he
man
is
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
hyos?
Q
"Is he your younger brother?"
ex:
你回来是因为想我吗？
Meuu
You
beuu
come back
ngop
think
dhang
face
hou
my
vi
accent
zuumos?
Q
"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?"
【huux，hauux，呢，呀】
These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
ex:
你买什么东西呢？
Meuu
you
caty
buy
gong
stuff
meshes
what
huux?
Q
"What do you buy?"
ex:
你是谁？
Meuu
you
uuras
who
hauux?
Q
"Who are you?"
【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
ex:
咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？
Gha
we
uengxtoengs
everyone
kweis
AUX
caep
carry by hands
cas
or
caem
carry or shoulders
nix?
Q
"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?"
ex:
这是谁的呀？
Neix
this
guu asras
whose
yax?
Q
"Whose is this?"
【zuuras/cuusras，吗】
These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
ex:
今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？
Hwanneix
today
hou
I
uengx
and
na
he
kweis
auxiliary
hei
go,
Damxax,
Sanya
meuu
you
loms
again
da
not
hei
go
zuuras?
Q
"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?"
ex:
他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？
Kun
they
uengxtoengs
everyone
vuek
do
gong,
work
meuu
you
oms
but
da
not
vuek
do
cuusras?
Q
"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?"
【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】
These words express a possibility, e.g.,
ex:
他来了吧？
Na
he
buuen
come
zuurasve?
Q
"Did he come?"
ex:
你烧山栏地了吗？
meuu
you
bhaeis
already
cuis
burn
ang
field
vixbas?
Q
"Did you already burn the field?"
ex:
你要去吗？
meuu
you
kweis
AUX
hei
go
bas?
Q
"Are you going to go?"
Imperative mood
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".
【as，吧，啊】
This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
ex:
你们看我们的马吧！
Meuuda
you
dzueis
look
gas
horse
fa
we
as!
IMP
"Look at our horses!"
ex:
就那样吧！
Goms
then
dhonghauux
like that
as！
IMP
"That's it!"
【bas，啊，吧】
This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
ex:
你拿吧！
Meuu
you
dheuu
take
bas!
IMP
"Take it!"
ex:
你快去吧！
Meuu
you
dzuuns
quickly
hei
go
bas!
IMP
"Quickly go!"
ex:
给我一个葫芦瓜吧！
Duuengx
give
hou
me
zuu
one
hom
CLF
ghaeix
cucurbita gourd
bas!
IMP
"Give me a gourd!"
【bhislo，咯】
This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
ex:
该睡了！
Zoen
sleep
bhislo!
IMP
"Go to sleep!"
ex:
快做咯！
Vuek
do
dzuuns
quickly
bhislo!
IMP
"Do it quickly!"
ex:
现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！
Hansneix
now
bhaeis
already
zaux
have
caqias
script
gha
we
Hlai,
Li,
uengxtoengs
everyone
guulax
should
tuuen
out.
kaux
strength
o
learn
bhislo!
IMP!
"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!"
Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
ex:
你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！
Meuu
You
hluumsghweuu
NEG-know
mos？
Q?
Neix
This
man
is
caqias
script
Hlai
Li
bhislo!
accent!
"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!"
【res，吧】
The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
ex:
你们快吃吧！
Meuuda
you
dzuuns
quickly
lax
eat
res!
IMP
"Come on, eat quickly!"
ex:
进来吧！
Hluet
enter
buuen
come
res!
IMP
"Come on in!"
ex:
喝茶吧！
Hyaeu
drink
dhe
tea
res!
IMP
"Drink (some) tea!"
Exclamatory mood
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,
ex:
你说对极了！
Meuu
you
rien
say
dhiu
right
dhat
very
ho!
EXCM
"You're right!"
ex:
别打架了！
Yous
don't
taeixtoengs
fight each other
a!
EXCM
"Don't fight!"
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
ex:
啊！那小伙子好极了！
O!
EXCM
Pasceuus
guy
hauux
that
hleny
good
dhat
very
o!
EXCM
"Ah! That young man is great!"
ex:
唉！已经破了。
Aei!
EXCM
Bhaeis
already
poens
break
he.
accent
"Oh! It's broken."
ex:
哎哟！痛极了！
Aiho!
EXCM
Cok
pain
baisias
very much
ho!
EXCM
"Oh! It's painful!"
Onomatopoeic words
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,
ex:
"哎呀！肚子疼啊！
Aidza!
Ouch!
Cok
Pain
raeis
intestines
ha!
accent
Oh dear! What stomach pains!"
ex:
哎哟，痛极了！
Aiho!
Ouch!
Cok
Pain
baisias
very much
ho!
accent
"Oh, what great pain!"
ex:
哟！水涨了！
Ihyos!
Ah!
Noms
River
bhaeis
already
long
big
bhe!
accent
"Yo! The water has gone up!"
ex:
哟，这是什么？
Isdzos!
Mmm!
Neix
This
man
is
meshes?
what
"Oh, what is this?"
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
ex:
唉，是那样！
Euu,
Yes,
dhonghauux
that
(is)
bhe!
accent
"Yes, just like that!"
ex:
他唉（答应）了吗？
Na
He
bhaeis
already
euu
agree
cas
or
da?
not
"Did he already agree or not?"
Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,
ex:
姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑
Hluuek'ueng
Girl
raeux
laugh
hihi
onomatopoeia
dhuus
in
hauux.
there
"The girl laughed there."
ex:
天哗哗地下雨了
Fas
sky
fun
rain
fosfos
onomatopoeia
bhe.
accent
"It is raining."
ex:
长腿蛙又叫，"别！别！别"
Gaet
Frog(with-long-legs)
fan
then
loms
again
roeng,
call
"Beets!
onomatopoeia
Beets!
onomatopoeia
Beets!"
onomatopoeia
"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!"
More onomatopoeic words below:
| Birds | catcatscat, "鸟叫声; bird"; hwaxhwax, "鸟叫声"; jitjit, "喳喳（鸟叫声）"
aekk/aekaek, "乌鸦的叫声，crow"; guxguguxgus, "布谷鸟的叫声"; gaengxgoeng, "冈工（鸟叫声）"; zatzat, "麻雀叫声"; aepaep, "鸭叫声，duck" weepweep, "母鸡叫声"; gokgok, "母鸡叫小鸡的声音"; goksguudheek, "母鸡下蛋的叫声" jiepp, "小鸡叫声" |
| Four-legged animal | bhesbhes, "黄牛的叫声，cow";
uungas, "（牛）叫；牛叫声"; hexhex, "羊叫声，goat"; ixhes, "马叫声，horse"; vuns, "狗叫，吠"; kuek, "（麂子）叫"; mieuxmieux, "咪咪（猫叫声）"; nyaeuxnyaeux, "猫叫声" |
| Insect | nongxniengx, "蝉叫声";
hwexhwex, "蝉叫声" rixrix, "蟋蟀鸣叫声" guuroks, "一种青蛙"（guuroks 像它的叫声）" |
| Sounds of nature or action | bhoengs, "当当（打锣声）";
bhopp, "东西落地声"; bloks, "小石头或青蛙落水声"; blongx, "扑通（重物落地或落水声）"; ceepp, "脚步声"; blus, "扑通（落水声）"; dongdong, "咚咚（打鼓声）"; fittfitt, "哭泣声"; gakgak, "笑声" |
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Phrases
Summarize
Perspective
The construction of phrases and their basic rules
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
Coordinative phrases
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.
e.g.
父
bais
mother
母
pas
father
"parents"
e.g.
鸡
kai
chicken
和
ku/uengx
and
鸭
eps
duck
"chicken and duck"
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.
e.g.
又打又骂
taeix
beat
loms
and
cas
scold
"beat and scold"
e.g.
又酸又辣
fas
sour
hloeis
and
ghety
hot
"sour and hot"
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.
e.g.
往
hei
go
往
hei
go
返
luueng
back
返
luueng
back
"go back and forth"
e.g.
红
kiu
green
红
kiu
green
绿
ghaens
red
绿
ghaens
red
"green and red"
Attribute phrases
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Noun as the head word
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
Noun (the head word) + noun
e.g.
猪
aek
meat
肉
bou
pig
"pork"
e.g.
牛
hau
horn
角
duis
water buffalo
"buffalo's horn"
Noun + adjective
e.g.
noms
water
ghan
cold
"cold water"
e.g.
veengs
shirt/top
baen
new
"new shirt/top"
The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
e.g.
enyx
small
veengs
shirt/top
"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"
e.g.
enyx
small
duis
water buffalo
"calf (young water buffalo)"
e.g.
enyx
small
dziengx
finger
"little finger (pinkie)"
Noun + verb
e.g.
fok
place
gaux
sleep
"a place for sleeping"
e.g.
daty
bird
bheny
fly
"(a) flying bird(s)"
Noun + pronoun
e.g.
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
"my older brother"
e.g.
blongs
house
hauux
that
"that house"
Number + classifier + noun (the head word)
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.
e.g.
fus
three
zuen
CL
aeudza
old man
"three old men"
e.g.
hlaus
two
hom
CL
dzuuem
egg
"two eggs"
Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
e.g.
Dongxgoknaengsmiens
China
people
"Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help);
Adjective + noun (the head word)
e.g.
hiuxdius
superior
odex
student
"superior student"
Verb + noun (the head word)
e.g.
goeisgiet
resolve
muixdhoeis
problem
"resolving (the) problem"
Verb as the head word
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
Adverb + verb
e.g.
da
not
oep
love/like
"don't like"
e.g.
bhaeis
already
lax
eat
"already ate"
e.g.
yous
Don't
rien
say
"don't say"
e.g.
naeus
just
buuen
come
"just came"
e.g.
ais
not willing to
lax
eat
"not willing to eat"
Adjective + verb
e.g.
dzuuns
quick
rien
say
"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)
e.g.
hleny
good
lax
eat
good (to) eat" (it means delicious)
e.g.
gin
hurry
lax
eat
"busy eating"
Noun + verb
e.g.
cai
wood
vuek
make
"made of wood"
e.g.
uuhaux
tomorrow
hei
go
"(will) go tomorrow"
Verb + verb (the head word)
e.g.
oep
like
lax
eat
"like to eat"
e.g.
hei
go
dzok
steal
"go (and) steal"
e.g.
gaux
lie down
dzueis
look
"reading lying down"
Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
"快快读，read quickly"
hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
"好好说，say (it) nicely"
liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"
Pronoun + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
"那样缝，sew like that"
dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
"怎么做？How is it to be done?"
qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"
Number + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
"打三下，beat (something) three times"
zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"
zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"
Adjective as the head word
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
Adjective + adjective (the head word)
e.g.
hleny
good
coem
sharp
"so sharp"
e.g.
reek
bad
coem
sharp
"not sharp"
Adverb + adjective (the head word)
e.g.
duix
most
reek
bad
"worst"
e.g.
bhaeis
already
reek
bad
"already (gone) bad"
Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
Adjective (the head word) + adverb
e.g.
dzuuns
quick
dhat
very
"very quick"
e.g.
hleny
good
baisias
very much
"very good"
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun
e.g.
vaet
poor
neix
this
"this poor"
e.g.
long
big
dhongneix
like this
"this big"
e.g.
peek
high
dhonghauux
like that
"that high"
Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun
e.g.
bheeng
wide
ras?
How?
"How wide?"
e.g.
hloei
many/much
ras?
how?
"How many/much?"
Adjective (the head word) + noun
e.g.
long
big
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
e.g.
bheeng
wide
laengs
sea
"wide as the sea"
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
e.g.
long
big
(dhong)
as
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
Verb-object phrases
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
Verb (the head word) + noun (object)
e.g.
lax
eat
tax
rice
"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"
e.g.
dzueis
look
qias
book
"read book (the meaning is to read)"
Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)
e.g.
dheuu
take
hauux
that
"take that one"
e.g.
ngwaety
call
meuu
you
"(I'll) call you"
e.g.
bhiek
carry (something) on shoulder
meshes
what?
"carry what"
Verb (the head word) + verb (object)
e.g.
dhas
fear
rien
say
"怕说，fears to say"
e.g.
auux
dare
vuuek
do
"dare to do (something)"
Verb (the head word) + number (object)
e.g.
caty
buy
zuu
one
hom
CL
"buy one"
e.g.
lax
eat
fus
three
waeu
CL
"eat three bowls (of food)"
Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
e.g.
leis
thin
aeu
people
"(makes) people thin"
e.g.
ghweis
fat
aeu
people
"(makes) people fat"
Complement phrases
The complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
Verb-complement phrase
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)
e.g.
fei
walk
hluet
go into
"walk in"
e.g.
dheuu
take
buuen
come
"plan to come"
Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)
e.g.
lax
eat
kuuem
full
"ate (until) full (stuffed)"
e.g.
riemx
fix
hleny
good
"fixed well"
e.g.
roengx
cook
fui
cooked
"cooked thoroughly"
Verb (the head word) + number (complement)
e.g.
fei
walk
zuu
one
guen
CL
"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
e.g.
fun
run
ba
five
hwan
day
ba
five
cop
night
"(it) rained five days and five nights"
Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
e.g.
bhaeis
already
hlaeux
die
duis
water buffalo
he.
accent
"The water buffalo already died."
Adjective-complement phrase
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.
Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)
e.g.
kaeix
cold
dhaens
as to
nyan
shiver
"(so) cold as to shiiver"
e.g.
reek
bad
haeis
smell
dhaens
as to
asras
who
ruus
all
ais
not willing to
dheuu
take
"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"
Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)
e.g.
gheuu
thin
dhaens
as to
ghau
transparency
"(so) thin as to be transparent"
e.g.
fui
cooked
dhaens
as to
ghaens
red
"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"
Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)
e.g.
long
big
fus
three
boux
CL/year
"three years older"
e.g.
hloei
many
zuu
one
hom
CL
"one more"
e.g.
peek
high
zuutom
half
ghwous
head
"a half-head taller"
Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
e.g.
Long
big
hwoet
wind
bhe！
accent
"The wind (is) strong!"
e.g.
Cok
hurt
bok
stomach
dhat
very
lo！
accent
"A stomachache! (very painful)"
Subject-predicate phrases
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
e.g.
Wenysnaeis
no
aeu
people
rien
say
na
he
reek.
bad
"No one said he (is) bad."
e.g.
Uengxtoengs
everyone
ruus
all
rien
say
gong
stuff
neix
this
fas.
sour
"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."
e.g.
Daty
bird
bheny
fly
lo.
accent
"Birds have flown (away)."
e.g.
Na
he
buuen
come
lo.
accent
"He has come."
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
| Subject-predicate phrases | Attribute phrases | ||
| Daty bheny bhe.
birds fly accent |
鸟飞了
The birds have flown away. |
daty bheny
birds fly |
飞的鸟
the flying birds |
| Aeu buuen he.
people come accent |
人家来了
People have come. |
aeu buuen
people come |
来的人
the people (who) have come |
| qi coem duuek
time fruit ripe |
果子成熟的时候
time to harvest fruit |
coem duuek
fruit ripens |
熟的果子
ripened fruit |
| cai peek baisias
tree tall very much |
树高得很
The tree (is) very tall. |
cai peek
tree tall |
高的树
tall tree |
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Sentence construction and the basic rules
Summarize
Perspective
ex:
在河边的房子
blongs
house
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux
that
"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"
ex:
我的哥哥和你的弟弟
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
my older brother and your younger brother
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
ex:
那房子在那条河边
Blongs
house
hauux
that
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux.
that
"That house (is) on the bank of that river."
ex:
我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人
Pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
ngan
also
gaengxnaengs.
worker
"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
| Subject
主语 |
Predicate
谓语 | |||||||
| Verb
述语 |
Object
宾语 | |||||||
| (Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
Adverbial
状语 |
Head word
中心语 |
(Adverbial)
（状语） |
(Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
| Complement
补语 | ||||||||
Subjects
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.
Predicates
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
Passive voice
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
ex:
鸡被狐狸咬了
Kai
Chicken
ghoems
by
dauxmuty
fox
gaeny
bite
bhe.
accent
"A chicken was bit by a fox."
ex:
那村子被火烧了
Bhous
Village
hauux
that
ghoems
by
fei
fire
cuis
burn
lo.
accent
"That village was burned by fire."
Objects
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
ex:
母亲给她一条裙子
Baisdza
Mother
duuengx
give
na
her
lax
auxiliary word
zuu
one
ruet
CL
riens.
skirt
"Mother gave her a skirt."
ex:
我教你黎话
Hou
I
dun
teach
meuu
you
lax
auxiliary word
tun
language
Hlai.
Li
"I teach you the Li lauguage."
ex:
哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝
Pashlaus
older brother
duuengx
give
pasghueng
younger brother
dheuu
auxiliary
zuu
one
hom
CL
zuucoeis.
litchi
"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
ex:
母亲挑水给弟弟
Baisdza
Mother
caep
carry
noms
water
duuengx
give
pasghueng.
younger brother
"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."
ex:
姐姐煮饭给妹妹
Hluuekkauus
Older sister
roengx
cook
tax
rice
duuengx
give
baisghueng.
younger sister
"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."
Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
ex:
他给我衣服
Na
He
duuengx
give
veengs
shirt/top
duuengx
give
hou.
me
"He gave a shirt to me."
ex:
父亲不给我糖
Pasdza
Father
da
not
duuengx
give
nomstaengs
sugar
duuengx
give
dhes.
me
"(My) Father did not give me sugar."
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
ex:
你给他
Meuu
You
duuengx
give
na
him
dheuu.
auxiliary word
"You give it to him."
ex:
这把小刀给你
Zuu
One
pienx
CL
enyx
small
gas
knife
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This small knife (was) given (to) you."
ex:
这只鸡给你
Zuu
One
lang
CL
kai
chicken
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This chicken (was) given (to) you."
Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."
Complement
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
Sequential complement
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."
Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."
Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."
Directional complement
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
| fei buuen
walk come 走来, walk and come |
fei beuu
walk come back 走回去, walk back |
fei dhaens
walk arrive 走到, walk to |
fei kaen
walk go up 走上, walk up |
fei hluet
walk go into 走进, walk into |
| fei hei
walk go 走去, walk and go |
fei luueng
walk go back 走回来, walk back |
fei dhuas
walk pass 走过, walk through |
fei luei
walk go down 走下, walk down |
fei tuuen
walk go out 走出, walk out |
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought something here."
Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."
Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
"老人回来了，The old man came back."
Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."
Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."
Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."
Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."
Quantitative complement
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."
Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."
Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."
Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."
Attribute
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)
aek duis
meat water buffalo
"牛肉，beef"
feekx hweek
skin banana
"香蕉皮，banana peel"
coem coeis
fruit litchi
"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"
dzuuem kai
egg chicken
"鸡蛋，chicken egg"
Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."
Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)
tau loek
pot black
"黑锅，black pot"
zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
"一件白上衣，one white shirt"
noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."
Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."
Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."
Number (attribute) + noun (head word)
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."
Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."
Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."
Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."
Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"
hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"
zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"
Adverbial
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
Adverbs as adverbials
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."
Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."
Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don't say/speak word
"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"
Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."
Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
"他真的来了，He really came."
Na vuek luueng.
He do back
"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."
Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."
Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."
Adjectives as adverbials
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
"不锋利，not so sharp"
Gas neix hleny coem hos！
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"
Dais fei as, baisdza！
Slow walk accent, old lady!
"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！
You quick come accent
"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！
You come quick quick accent
"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."
Verbs as adverbials
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."
Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"
Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."
Nouns as adverbials
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
"这是木制的，This is made of wood."
Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"
Pronouns as adverbials
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
"他这样说，He said (it) like this."
Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"
Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."
Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."
Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"
Prepositional phrases as adverbials
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
"被狗咬，bit by a dog"
dheuu na taeix
by him hit
"被他打，hit by him"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"
toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"
dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."
ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
"对他说，say to him"
uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
"同你去，(I'll) go with you."
meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
"你和他玩，You play with him."
Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."
Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."
enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
"像针一样小，as small as a needle."
Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."
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Sentence patterns and types
Summarize
Perspective
Sentence patterns and their basic rules
Simple sentence
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
Subject-predicate sentences
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."
Na hei bhe.
He go accent
"他去了，He went."
Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
"我吃饭，I eat rice."
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."
No subject sentences
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."
Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
"人真多，(There are) so many people."
Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
"鱼死了，The fish died."
One word sentence
Asras？
Who？
"谁？Who?"
Ahyo!
Oh my!
"哎哟！Oh my!"
A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis."
You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to
A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'
A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意
Compound sentences
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
Coordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
The parallel relationship
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."
The progressive relationship
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."
Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？
Eat potato or eat rice
"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"
Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."
Subordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
The transitional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."
The conditional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."
Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."
Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."
The causal relationship
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness
"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."
Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."
Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give
"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."
When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."
Compressed compound sentences
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more... think more... happy
"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."
Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more... feed more... fat
"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more... do more... fast
"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more... come more... many
"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."
Sentence types and their basic rules
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
Declarative sentence
Affirmative sentence
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."
Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."
Negative sentence
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."
Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."
Interrogative sentence
Using interrogative pronouns
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"
Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"
Neix man meshes?
This is what?
"这是什么？What is this?"
Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"
Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
"他何时来？When (will) he come?"
zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"
Using interrogative accent words
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"
Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"
Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Using negation words ("da")
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
"你要去吗？Won't you go?"
Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"
Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"
Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"
Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"
Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"
Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don't want?
"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"
Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"
Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？
He go or I go?
"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"
Imperative sentence
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
"来！Come！"
Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don't do
"别做！Quit doing that!"
Exclamatory sentence
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.
An accented word in one word sentence
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"
Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"
An accented word follows one word or one phrase
Cok ho!
Pain accent
"疼啊！Ouch!"
Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
"好多啊！So many!"
An accented word at the end of a sentence
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"
Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
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Influence of Chinese grammar
Summarize
Perspective
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Attribute phrases
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,
ex:
新
dienx
new
中国
Dongxgok
China
"new China"
ex:
新
dienx
new
裙子
gun
skirt
"new skirt"
ex:
大
dhuax
big
救星
giuscex
savior
"great savior"
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
ex:
新中国
Dongxgok
China
baen
new
"new China"
ex:
这是新裙子
neix
DEM.this
man
is
gun
skirt
baen.
new
"This is a new skirt."
ex:
大救星
giuscex
savior
long
big
"great savior"
Verb-object-complement phrases
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
Interrogative sentences
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
ex:
你
Meuu
You
去
hei
go
不
da
NEG
去？
hei?
go
"Are you going?"
The possessive auxiliary word gaeis
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,
ex:
北京
Bhakgengs
Beijing
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
颐和园
Ihwashueis
the name of emperor's Summer Palace
"Beijing's Summer Palace"
ex:
海南
Haeisnaems
Hainan
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
乐东
Lokdhongs
Ledong
县
gwaeis
township
"Hainan's Ledong township"
ex:
早晨
gaeusdhom
morning
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
太阳
cahwan
sun
"the morning's sun"
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References
Bibliography
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