Top Qs
Timeline
Chat
Perspective
Has Hlai grammar
Grammar of the Has Hlai language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Remove ads
This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.[1][2]
 | This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)
|
Remove ads
Introduction
Summarize
Perspective
The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago.[3] The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.
In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.
A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究),[4] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages[clarification needed]: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.
In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).[5]
At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).
Remove ads
Phonology and orthography
Summarize
Perspective
Consonants
Has Hlai has 31 consonants.[6] /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.
Notes:
- /ʔ/ is a null initial
- /ʔw/ and /ʔj/ are glottalized
- The velar stops are allophonic in Has Hlai with fricative forms (/k/ > /x/, etc)
- /f/, /v/ are labiodental; /m/, /b/, /p/, /pʰ/, and /pl/ are bilabial
Vowel rimes
Tones
Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone")[clarification needed] or not ("level tone")[clarification needed].
Remove ads
Nouns
Summarize
Perspective
Common nouns
Related to mankind/person
- 【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others' wives.
- 【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others' husbands.
- 【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word "bais"
- 【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word "pas"; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.
Related to objects/things
- 【ghang】: hill, mountain
- 【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
- 【laengs】: sea
- 【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
- 【ghei】: rice
Related to time or space
- 【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
- 【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left
Proper nouns
People
- Han (Chinese) name: All Li's Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
- Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).
Group/organization/party
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.
Places
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, "Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)"; Haeisnaems dhaeus, "Hainan Island, 海海南岛"; Lokdhongs, "Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )"
Nations
- Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, "China, 中国";
- few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, "Han people, 汉族"; Hlai, "Li people, 黎族"
Abstract nouns
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.[citation needed]
Basic rules for nouns
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.
zuu
a/one
lang
CL
dzax
snake
"a snake"
But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
|
fus three boux year "three years" |
hlaus two hwan day "two days" |
ba five nyaen month "May"
|
When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."
ba
five
hom
CL
nyaen
month
"five months"
2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:
|
ranx every zuen CL uxaeu man/one "everyone" |
ranx every hom CL blongs house "every house"
|
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.
- pasdza, "father"
- baisdza, "mother"
- paskai, "cock/rooster"（kai: chicken）
- baiskai, "hen"
- pasdzuengsgong, "salesman" （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）
- baisdzuengsgong, "saleswoman"
When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
Kun
PL
hluuekmuuen
young man
hauux
those
zuu
one
pas
CL
lax
eat
zuu
one
hom.
CL
"Each of those young men ate one."
4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.
Kun
PL
aeudza
old man
rien
say/talk/speak
tun
word
raeu
laugh
dhuus
in
fou
under
cai.
tree
"The old men were telling jokes under the tree."
The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,
Kun
PL
hlaus
two
zuen
CL
kauus
older sister
fuuek
weave
riens
skirt
paens.
decorative pattern
"The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern."
5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.
cai
tree
subject
tuuen
out of
ceeng
flower
object
"trees bloom (flowers)"
Veengs
shirt/top
subject
hauux
that
veengs
shirt/top
predicate
meuu.
you.SG
"That shirt/top is yours."
6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.
Meuu
you
kweis
want
ojiep
learn
caqias
script
Hlai
Li
da?
Q
"Do you want to learn Hlai script?"
7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.
Tong
tong
neix
this
cai
tree/wood
vuek.
do/make
"This hookah is made out of wood." (tong = An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah)
8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.
Hwanneix
today
fous
hot
dhat
very
lo!
ACCENT
"It's so hot today!"
Na
he/she
uunyeuu
day after tomorrow
hei
go
zok
to/toward
das.
mother's mother
"He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow."
Fa
we
uupans
yesterday
beuuluueng.
come back
"We came back yesterday."
9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.
Vabheny
airplane
neix
this
guu
POSS
Dongxgok.
China
"This airplane belongs to China."
Hlaus
two
lang
CL
duis
water buffalo
neix
this
guu
POSS
Laufus.
Mr. Fu
"These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu."
Remove ads
Verbs
Summarize
Perspective
Action verbs
- 【vuek，做】: to do, make...(it is used frequently)
- 【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke...; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
- 【duuengx，给】: to give
- 【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
- 【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
- 【dzok，偷】: to steal
- 【zongs，坐】: to sit
- 【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite...
- 【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
- 【cuuek，休息】: to rest
- 【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
- 【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
- others
Linking verbs
- 【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
- 【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not
Verbs for expressing mental activities
- 【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
- 【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
- 【oep，爱】: to love, to like
- 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
- 【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
- 【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
- 【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
- 【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
- others
Verbs for expressing existence, change, development
- 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
- 【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
- 【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
- 【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
- 【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
- 【dzauux，变】: to change
- others
Modal verbs
- 【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
- 【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
- 【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
- 【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
- 【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
- 【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
- 【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
- 【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
- 【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
- 【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
- 【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
- 【auux，敢】: to dare to
- others
Verbs of motion
- 【buuen，来】: to come
- 【hei，去】: to go
- 【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
- 【luueng，返】: to return
- 【dhuas，过】: to pass through
- 【kaen，上】: to go up
- 【luei，下】: to go down
- 【hluet，进】: to go into
- 【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
- 【dhaens，到】: to arrive
Basic rules for verbs
Tense/aspect
In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.
Progressive aspect
The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,
Hluuek
child
na
he/she
fietla
ADV.PROG
laix
plough
dax.
field
"His children/child are/is plowing the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子正在犁田)
Perfect aspect
The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,
Hluuek
child
na
he/she
bhaeis
ADV.PERF
hei
go
ang
field
he.
ACCENT
"His children/child already went to the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子已经去山栏地了)
Pashlaus
older brother
na
he/she
bhaeis
ADV.PERF
bleuu
hear
fan
then
rien,
say
"Eis,
ACCENT
hluumsghweuu
don't know
na
he/she
guu.
FUT
loms
still/again
cas
or
da?"
not
'When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"' (Chinese: 他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?")
If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,
The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,
Meuu
you
laeis
see
zuu
one
zuen
CL
aeu
person/people
neix
this
dhuas
PERF
cas
or
da?
not
"Have you ever seen this man?" (Chinese: 你见过这个人吗？)
Dhes
I
da
not
rien
say/speak
dhongneix
like this
dhuas.
PERF
"I didn't say anything like that." (Chinese: 我没有说过这样的话)
Future aspect
The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,
The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,
Bhoek
carry
noms
water
guu
for the purpose of
roengx
cook
tax.
rice
"bring the water (used) for cooking" (Chinese: 打水煮饭)
Others
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,
Duuengx
to let/to allow
hou
I
cat
wear
zuufanx.
a short while
"Let me wear it (for) a short while." (Chinese: 给我穿一下子)
Verbs as predicates
Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,
Nominal verbs
Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,
Uu-laix
NMLZ-plow
hauux
that
dax
field
hou.
my
"The field that has been plowed is mine." (Chinese: 那犁过的是我的田)
Uu-buuen
NMLZ-come
hauux
that
ghueng
young brother or sister
dhes.
my
"The one who is coming is my brother/sister." (Chinese: 那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹）)
Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,
Duis
buffalo
neix
this
man
is
uu-duuengx
NMLZ-give
hlausghueng.
relatives
"The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives." (Chinese: 这牛是给亲戚的)
Uu-oep
NMLZ-love
hou
me
man
is
dhangjis
comrade
hou.
my
"The one who loves me is my comrade." (Chinese: 爱我的是我的同志)
Doubling
Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,
Na
he/she
bleuu
hear
bleuu
hear
fan
then
beuu.
go back
"He (only) heard about/of it and went back." (Chinese: 他听了听就回去了)
Kun
PL
hluuekueng
young girl
dzueis
look
dzueis
look
fan
then
fei
walk
hluet
go into
blongs.
house
"The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house." (Chinese: 姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了)
A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,
Modal verbs
Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,
Meuu
You
kiemx
should/must
hei
go
geek
look for
guns.
firewood
"You should look for firewood." (Chinese: 你应该去砍柴)
Meuu
you
guulax
should/must
dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
naus
just
dhiu.
right
"You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right." (Chinese: 你必须这样做才对)
Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g.,
Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,
Meuu
You
gieu
be able to
rien
say/speak
tun
word
Hlai
Li
cas
or
da?
not?
Dhes
I
gieu.
be able to
"Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can." (Chinese: 你能说黎语吗？我能)
Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g.,
Na
he
bhaeis
already
o
learn (loan word)
kueng
know how
qias
script
Hlai
Li
he.
ACCENT
"He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script." (Chinese: 他已经学会黎文了)
The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.
Verbs of motion
Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,
Na
he/she
tuuen
from
blongs
house
ghoux
run
tuuen
go out
buuen.
come
"He ran out of the house." (Chinese: 他从屋里跑出来)
Zuufanx
a short while
blei
swim
hei,
go to,
zuufanx
a short while
blei
swim
luueng.
go back
"swim back and forth." (Chinese: 一会儿游去，一会儿游回)
Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,
Hou
I
hwanneix
today
bhaeis
already
duengx
carry/bring
heikaen
go up
hwous.
mountain
"I have already brought (it) to the mountain today." (Chinese: 我今天已经送到山上去)
Pasdza
Father
ghuis
lead/direct
na
he/she
heihluet
go into
hwous
mountain
hloek.
deep
"Father took him into the remote mountains." (Chinese: 父亲带他进入深山)
Pasbhanghlauux
name of a man
fan
then
beuuluueng
come back
blongs.
home
"Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home." (Chinese: Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去)
Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,
The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,
But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Gha
We
uengxtoengs
everyone
bhaeisbhaeis
all
ruus
all
man
are
uxaeu
people
Dongxgok.
China
"All of us are Chinese." (Chinese: 咱们大家都是中国人)
Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.
Reciprocal verbs
When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,
Duis
Water buffalo
tut'toengs.
collide with each other
"The buffaloes collided with each other." (Chinese: 牛互相碰撞)
Na
He/she
hlaus
two
zuen
CL
oeptoengs
love each other
dhat.
truly
"The two of them love each other very much." (Chinese: 他们两人很相爱)
Nouns and verbs
Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
- "to wear"
- kienx (for wearing a necklace);
- mieng (for wearing earrings);
- ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
- pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
- cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
- "noise"
- roeng (from an insect or bird);
- vuns (from a dog);
- hyoen (from a rooster);
- ngwaety (from a human)
Remove ads
Adjectives
Summarize
Perspective
Describing the characteristics of a person or thing
- 【hleny，好】: good
- 【reek，坏】: bad, not good
- 【kaeix，冷】: cold
- 【fous/faus，热】: hot
- 【dza，老】: old
- 【bluuek，年轻】: young
- 【hloek，深】: deep
- 【tuuens，浅】: shallow
- others
Describing the forms/attributes of thing
- 【long，大】: big, large
- 【enyx，小】: small
- 【peek，高】: tall, high
- 【tauus，矮】: short
- 【daeus，长】: long
- 【taty，短】: short
- others
Describing the state of actions or emotions
- 【dzuuns，快】: quick
- 【dais，慢】: slow
- 【hluengs，松】: loose
- 【guung，紧】: tight
- 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
- 【heen，容易】: easy
- others
Basic rules for adjectives
Use of adjectives
In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.
As a predicate
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,
Zuu
One
hom
CL
coem
fruit
hauux
that
long
big/large
baisias.
very much
"That fruit (is) large!" (Chinese: 那一个果子很大)
As an attribute
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,
As an adverbial
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,
As a complement
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,
Adverbs
An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,
Comparison
In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.
Comparative degree
Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
peek
tall
dhuas
more than
hluuekbaiskaux.
daughter
"The mother is taller than her daughter." (Chinese: 母亲高过女儿)
If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,
Superlative degree
Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,
Baiscuty
Youngest daughter
duix
most
hlenymuuen.
beautiful
"The youngest daughter is most beautiful." (Chinese: 幺妹最漂亮)
According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.
Others
"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,
Zuu
One
kuuengx
CL
cai
tree
neix
this
peek
tall
zuugit.
a little bit
"This three is just a little bit taller." (Chinese: 这棵树高一点)
Nominal adjectives
Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,
Kai
Chicken
uu-long
the big one
hauux
that
man
is
guu
POSS
dhes.
me
"That big chicken is mine." (Chinese: 那只大的鸡是我的)
Doubling
Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic. When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,
(When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)
Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,
Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,
Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,
Duplicated suffix
Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,
Small and large
The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,
Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,
If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.
Remove ads
Numbers
Summarize
Perspective
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.
Cardinal numbers
Basic numbers units
- 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
- 【hlaus，二】: two
- 【fus，三】: three
- 【caus，四】: four
- 【ba，五】: five
- 【dom，六】: six
- 【tou，七】: seven
- 【ghou，八】: eight
- 【fauus，九】: nine
- 【fuet，十】: ten
- 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
- 【nguen，千】: thousand
- 【vaens，万】: ten thousand
Basic numbers unit combinations
- 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
- 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
- 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
- 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
- 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
- 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
- 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand
With nouns
Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,
However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.
Meuuda
you
doengs
live
dhuus
in
Bhakgengs
Beijing
zuu
one
boux
year
hei
pass
lo.
ACCENT
"You have lived in Beijing for a year." (Chinese: 你们住在北京一年了)
Na
he
hlaus
two
hwan
day
da
not
kaen
go up
hwous
mountain
geek
search
guns
firewood
lo.
ACCENT
"These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood." (Chinese: 他两天不上山砍柴了)
Doubling
Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,
Zaux
have
nguen
thousand
nguen
thousand
vaens
ten thousand
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
buuen.
come
"There are thousands of people coming." (Chinese: 有千千万万的人来)
Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,
Zaux
have
jieng
form
nguen
thousand
jieng
form
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
hei.
go
"There are thousands of people going." (Chinese: 有成千成万的人去)
Zuu
one
nguen
thousand
zuu
one
vaens
ten thousand
aeu
man
ngan
all
qieng
desire
fas
sky
fun.
rain
"Thousands of people look forward to the rain." (Chinese: 千千万万的人都盼望天下雨)
One
There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.
The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.
The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,
The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,
zuu
one
vaens
ten hundred
zuu
one
nguen
thousand
ceuus/zeuus
one
fuet
ten
ceuus/zeuus
one
"eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)" (Chinese: 一万一千零一十一)
However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,
The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,
lax
one
nguen
thousand
dom
six
ghwaen
hundred
(=
(=
zuu
one
nguen
thousand
dom
six
ghwaen)
hundred)
"one thousand six hundred (1600)" (Chinese: 一千六百)
Ten
There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.
First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.
"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.
"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,
However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,
Zero
In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,
However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,
fus
three
nguen
thousand
loms
again
hlaus
two
fuet
ten
(hom)
(CLF)
"three thousand and twenty (3020)" (Chinese: 三千零二十（个）)
Rules for large numbers
In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,
(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,
Ordinal numbers
In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child-head-to plant
"the first born child" (usually, it means "son"; Chinese: 老大（长子）)
hluuek-tom
child-middle
"the child(ren) in the middle" (Chinese: 老二，老三…)
hluuek-cuty
child-tail
"the youngest child" (Chinese: 老幺)
When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,
hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa
child-man-head-to plant
=
=
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child-head-to plant
"the first born son" (Chinese: 长子)
hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa
child-woman-head-to plant
=
=
hluuek-baiskaux-long
child-woman-big
"the first born daughter" (Chinese: 大女儿)
Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).
Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,
pas-tom
M-middle
"the son in the middle" (Chinese: 次子)
bais-cuty
F-tail
"the youngest daughter" (Chinese: 幺女)
When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,
To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
Counting with ordinal numbers
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
- 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
- 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
- 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
- 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
- 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
- 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
- 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
- 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
- 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
- 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth
Counting the passage of years, months, days, or time
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
- year
- 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
- 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
- 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
- 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
- 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
- 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
- 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
- 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
- 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
- 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
- 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
- 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
- day
- 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
- 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
- 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
- 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
- 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
- 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
- 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
- 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
- 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
- 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
- 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
- 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,
- 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
- 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
- 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
- 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
- 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
- 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
- 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
- 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
- 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
- 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
- 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
- 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December
The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,
- 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
- 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
- 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
- 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
- ..........
- 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
- 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
- ..........
- 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
- 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month
Number of Approximation
With sequential numbers
In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,
Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.
With "probably"
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,
The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,
loepp
probably
zaux
have
tou
seven
fuet
ten
ceuus
one
kuuengx
CL.tree
"probably have seventy-one (trees)" (Chinese: 大约有七十一棵)
With "more than"
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,
The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,
Na
he
loepp
probably
zaux
have
fuet
ten
dza
surplus
boux
year
da
not
buuen
come
he.
ACCENT
"He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years." (Chinese: 他大约有十余年没来了)
The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,
Zuu
one
hom
CL
as
watermelon
neix
this
loepp
probably
fuet
ten
dza
surplus
gins.
CL, about 500 g
"This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins." (Chinese: 这个西瓜大约有十多斤)
Small amounts
There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,
The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,
zuutom
some
hei
go
zuutom
some
buuen
come
"Some (people) go, some (people) come." (Chinese: 一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来)
Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half", e.g.,
Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,
Mansnyoengx
only
zaux
have
gei
several
zuen
CL
aeu
man
buuen.
come
"Only a few people come (less than ten)" (Chinese: 只有几个人来)
Large amounts
The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,
Bhous
village
na
he
hauux
that
hloei
many
duis
water buffalo
dhat.
very
"There are a lot of buffalo in his village." (Chinese: 他那个村牛很多)
Dhuix
team
fa
we
neix
this
zaux
have
uxaeu
man
hloeihloei.
so many
"We have so many people on this team." (Chinese: 我们这个队有许多人)
When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,
Meuu
you
zaux
have
hloeiras
how many
zuen
CL
hluuekghueng?
younger sister or brother
"How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?" (Chinese: 你有多少个弟弟妹妹？)
Remove ads
Classifiers
Summarize
Perspective
Classifiers that modify nouns
Common classifiers
- 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,
- 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,
- 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,
- 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,
- 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,
- 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,
- 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,
- 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,
- 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,
- 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,
zuu
one
tos
CL
veengs
shirt/top
kous
pants
"a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom" (Chinese: 一套衣服裤子)
- 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,
- 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,
- 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,
- 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,
- 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,
- 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,
- 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，
- 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,
- 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，
- 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,
- 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,
- 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,
- 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,
- 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,
- 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,
- 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,
- 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,
- 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,
- 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,
- 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,
bhous
Village
fa
our
zaux
have
hlaus
two
fuet
ten
dhun
CL
blongs.
households
"There are twenty households in our village." (Chinese: 我们村子有二十户人家)
- 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,
- 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,
- 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.
- 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.
- 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,
- 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,
- 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,
- 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,
- 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,
(fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)
zuu
one
koen
CL
fiek
CL
"a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back" (Chinese: 半挑东西)
- 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,
- 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,
- 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,
- 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects
- 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)
- 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,
- 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,
- 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,
- 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,
- 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,
- 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,
- 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,
(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)
- 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects
- 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,
- 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,
- 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,
or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,
- 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,
- 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,
- 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,
Classifiers for measurement
- 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,
- 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
- 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35 centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
- 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
- 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.
- 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,
- 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.
- 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
- 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu dhaeu ghei (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice). 10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
- 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g., fus kax ghei (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
- 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu gins hla (zuu: one, hla: fish). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
- 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
- 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei, "a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."
Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs
- 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
- 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
- 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
- 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
- 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
- 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
- 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
- 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
- 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,
fa
We
buuen
come
neix
here
bhaeis
already
zaux
have
fus
three
puuen
CL
bhe
ACCENT
"We've been here for three generations." (Chinese: 我们来这儿已有三代了)
- 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
- 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
- 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
bhaeis
Already
vuek
do
zuu
one
taen
CL
dings.
demon
"(The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons." (Chinese: 已经祭了一趟鬼)
- 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
- 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
- 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
- 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
- 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
Classifiers for modifying verbs
- 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,
- 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,
na
he/she
bhaeis
already
rien
say/speak
hlaus
two
gaeis
CL
"He already said (it) two times." (Chinese: 他已经说了两遍了)
- 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,
- 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,
kai
Chicken
bhaeis
already
hyoen
cock crow
fus
three
caety
CL
"The chicken has already crowed three times." (Chinese: 鸡已叫了三遍)
- 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,
- 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,
- 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,
- 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,
- 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,
- 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,
- 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
Basic rules for classifiers
Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,
Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,
Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,
In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,
Hou
I
caty
buy
zuu
one
hom,
CL
meuu
you
ngan
also
caty
buy
zuu
one
hom.
CL
"I buy one, and you buy one." (Chinese: 我买一个，你也买一个)
Remove ads
Pronouns
Summarize
Perspective
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
Personal pronouns
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":[24]
- The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
- When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
- Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
- Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
- Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
- When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,
Q:
Q:
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
A:
A:
Hou
I
res!
ACCENT
Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I. (Chinese: Q: 谁在那里？A: 我呀！)
- If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,
'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000002F3-QINU`"'Q:
Q:
Asras
Who
dhuus
is
hauux?
there?
'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000002F4-QINU`"'A:
A:
Dhes
Me
vi!
ACCENT
Asras?
Who?
"Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I! Who else?" (Chinese: Q: 谁在那里？A: 我嘛！还有谁？)
- When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,
Tuuen
Go out
dhang
face
duuengx
give
hou
me
nga;
look
tuuen
go out
ca
eye
duuengx
give
hou
me
laeis
see
"Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes." (Chinese: 露脸给我瞧；露眼睛给我见)
- If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,
- When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
- In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
Demonstrative pronouns
- 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
- 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
- 【max，那】: that; there
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
- 【dhongneix，这】: like this
- 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
- 【hineix，这】: such
- 【hihauux，那】: like that
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
- 【uughwaix，别的】: other
- 【ranx，每】: every
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,
There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,
Zuu
one
kun
CLF
daty
bird
hauux
that
bheny
fly
he.
ACCENT
"The flock of birds (is) flying away." (Chinese: 那一群鸟飞了)
When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,
When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,
Meuu
you
neix
empty word
kweis
want
dheuu
take
gong
stuff
meshes?
what
"What are you going to take?" (Chinese: 你要拿什么东西？)
The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,
The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,
Interrogative pronouns
- 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
- 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
- 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
- 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
- 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
- 【meshes，什么】: What?
- others
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" is placed before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,
The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,
When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
Ras
which
zuu
one
hom
CLF
blongs
house
vaeu
most
long?
big
"Which house is the biggest one?" (Chinese: 哪一个房子最大？)
When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,
Ang
hilly field
neix
this
ghwa
plant
dhongras?
how?
"How is this hilly field to be planted?" (Chinese: 这山栏地怎样种？)
The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu
you
qiras
when
hei
go
qix?
street
"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?" (Chinese: 你什么时候上街？)
The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,
Meuu
you
zaux
have
hloeiras,
how many
hou
I
dheuu
take
hloeiras.
how many
"However many you have, I will take them." (Chinese: 你有多少，我要多少)
Remove ads
Adverbs
Summarize
Perspective
Negation
- 【da，不】: not
- 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
Gong
stuff
neix
this
reek
bad
he,
ACCENT
yous
don't
lax.
eat
"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!" (Chinese: 这东西坏了，别吃！)
When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,
When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,
Degree
- 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
- 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
- 【zangs，太】: too
- 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
- 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
- 【dhat，很】: very
- 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
Veengs
shirt/top
neix
this
hleny
good
dhatdhat.
very much
"This shirt/top is a very good one." (Chinese: 这件衣服非常好)
Scope, extent, or range
- 【ruus，都】: all
- 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
- 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
- 【mans，仅，只】: only
- others
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
Na
he/she
mans-nyoengx
only
zaux
have
zuu
one
zuen
CLF
hluuek.
child
"He has only one child." (Chinese: 他只有一个孩子)
Timing
- 【bhaeis，已经】: already
- 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
- 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
- 【faets，正在】: in process
- 【dhom，还】: still, yet
- 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
- 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
- others
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Zuughanx
right after
hluet
enter
blongs
house
hou
I
fan
then
laeis
see
na.
he/she
"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him." (Chinese: 一进门我就看见他)
meuu
you
buuen
come
dhaens
to
neix
here
goms
then
bhaeisyous
never/not
hei
go
beuu.
back
"(Since) You came here, don't go back." (Chinese: 你来到这里了，就别再回去了)
However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Duplication or continuation
- 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
- 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
- 【toengs，互相】: each other
- others
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,
The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuuda
you.PL
yous
don't
taeix
fight
toengs
each other
as!
ACCENT
"Don't fight each other!" (Chinese: 你们别互相打架了！)
Emphasis or transition
- 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
- 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
- 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
- others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Baiscai
big-tree
long
big
neix
such
oms
but
caeu.
break
"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!" (Chinese: 这样大的树却断了)
Aeu
others
naus
EMPH
cas
scold
meuu
you
vuek
do
meshes
what (= why)
"Why do people scold you?" (Chinese: 人家到底为什么骂你？)
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
Remove ads
Conjunctions
Summarize
Perspective
Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases
- 【uengx，和，与】: and
- 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
- 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
- others
That link nouns:
Ba
dog
ku
and
bou
pig
zestoengs
fight each other
kweis
want
lax
eat
tax.
rice
"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat." (Chinese: 狗和猪争吃)
Toengsdhun
wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
learn
"A husband and (his) wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习)
That link pronouns:
Hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengxtoengs
together
vuek
do
gong.
work
"I and you will work together." (Chinese: 我和你共同干活)
That link noun phrases:
Hou
I
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu
AUX
zuu
one
hom
CLF
coem
fruit
long
big
ku
and
hlaus
two
hom
CLF
guengs.
basket
"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets." (Chinese: 我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐)
That link verb-object phrases:
Dhes
I
hei
go
qix
street
lax
eat
tax
rice
ku
and
lax
eat
bhiengx.
sticky rice wine
"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine." (Chinese: 我上街吃饭和喝酒)
These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,
Uengx
and
hou
I
uengx
and
meuu
you
uengx
and
na
he
hei
go
caty
buy
gong.
stuff
"I and you and he will go shopping." (Chinese: 我和你和他去买东西)
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
Baisdza
Mother
zok
rebuke
nyuek
and
cas,
scold,
pasdza
father
cas
scold
nyuek
and
taeix.
beat
"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat." (Chinese: 母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打)
Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,
Duis
water buffalo
hauux
that
long
big
hloeis
and
ghweis.
fat
"That buffalo is big and fat." (Chinese: 那头水牛大而且肥)
Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases
- 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
- 【cas，或者，还是】: or
- 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
- others
Meuu
You
gaux
lie down
cuus
or
zongs
sit
ngan
also
loepp.
allow
"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down." (Chinese: 你躺或者坐着都可以)
Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Link a single subordinate clause
- 【hans，因为】: because
- 【dosdzis，所以】: so
- 【laeis，如果】: if
- 【tom，但是】: but
- 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
- others
Hans
Because
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come,
hou
I
da
not
hei
go
bhe.
ACCENT
"Because he didn't come, I didn't go." (Chinese: 因为他不来，所以我不去了)
Na
He
kueng
know
caqias,
script
dosdzis
so
na
he
kuengghweuu
know
li.
principle
"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle." (Chinese: 因为他有知识，所以他懂道理)
Laeis
If
meuu
you
hei,
go
hou
I
goms
then
dzoeng
wait
meuu.
you
"If you go, then I'll wait for you." (Chinese: 如果你去，我就等你)
qimax
Before
gha
we
vaet
poor
baisias,
very much
tom
but
hansneix
now
da
not
dhong
like
qihauux
before
bhe.
ACCENT
"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before." (Chinese: 以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了)
The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know how
laix
plow
dax,
field
uuloms
but also
gieu
know how
kieux
reap
muens.
rice
"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻)
Meuu
You
fei
walk
guen
road
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
zongs
sit
qia
car
hei.
go
"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)." (Chinese: 你走路去，或者坐车去)
Link two or more clauses
Gas
Horse
dacaux
not only
lax
eat
gans,
grass
lax
eat
uengx
also
noms.
water
"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water." (Chinese: 马不但吃草，而且喝水)
Na
He
dacaux
not only
taeix
beat
meuu,
you
taeix
beat
koms
even
hou.
me
"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me." (Chinese: 他不但打你，而且打我)
Dhes
I
dacaux
not only
zaux
have
pasghueng,
younger brother,
zaux
have
toep
even
baisghueng.
younger sister
"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)." (Chinese: 我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹)
Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,
Duis
buffalo
neix
this
danyoengx
not only
long
big
kaux,
strength
uuloms
but also
doengs
live
gans.
grass
"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly." (Chinese: 这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草)
Na
He
dagoms
not only
gieu
know how
laix
plow
dax,
field
uuloms
but also
gieu
know how
kieux
reap
muens.
rice
"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice." (Chinese: 他不但会犁田，而且会割稻)
Hans
Because
uupans
yesterday
fas
sky
fun,
rain
dosdzis
so
hou
I
gax
cannot
buuen.
come
"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come." (Chinese: 因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来)
Relationships between linked elements
Parallel relationship
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,
Toengsdhun
Wife
nyuek
and
toengsblongs
husband
uengxtoengs
together
ojiep.
study/learn
"The husband and wife study together." (Chinese: 妻子和丈夫共同学习)
Hou
I
hei
go
qix
street
caty
buy
veengs
shirt/top
ku
and
caty
buy
kous.
pants
"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants. (Chinese: 我上街买上衣和买裤子)
Progressive relationship
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
Na
He
lax
eat
zuu
one
feek
bite
loms
and
zuu
one
feek.
bite
"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite." (Chinese: 他吃一口又一口)
Na
He
dacaux
not only
cas
scold
hou,
me
cas
scold
koms/uengx
even/and
meuu.
you
"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you." (Chinese: 他不但骂我，而且骂你)
In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
Optional relationship
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Meuuda
You
kweis
want
hei
go
geek
look for
hla
fish
cuus
or
da?
not
"Are you going to go fishing or not?" (Chinese: 你要去捕鱼还是不去？)
Meuu
You
kweis
want
dheuu
take
zuucoeis
litchi
cuusnaus
or
dheuu
take
zuuyunx？
coconut
"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?" (Chinese: 你要拿荔枝还是椰子？)
Transitional relationship
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Na
He
ghwaix
is not
Hlai,
Li
tom
but
kueng
know
rien
say
tun
language
Hlai
Li
"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect." (Chinese: 他不是黎族，但会讲黎话)
Na
He
kweis
want
hei,
go
oms
but
wenysnaeis
no
hwan
day
"He's willing to go, but there's no time." (Chinese: 他愿意去，但没有时间)
Conditional relationship
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,
Dalunx
no matter what
na
he
rien
say
dhongras,
how
hou
I
ngan
also
hei
go
"No matter what he says, I'll go." (Chinese: 不管他怎样说，我都去)
Laeis
If
na
he
da
not
buuen,
come
hou
I
goms
then
hei
go
lo
ACCENT
"If he doesn't come, then I'll go." (Chinese: 如果他不来，我就去了)
Causal relationship
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas
Sky
fun,
rain
yous
don't
hei,
go
dagoms
otherwise
ia
gain
cok
sickness
"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick." (Chinese: 天下雨了，别去，不然要得病)
Remove ads
Prepositions
Summarize
Perspective
Place, direction, or time
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
- 【tuuen，从】: from
- 【ueks，里】: inside
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,
Ueks
Inside
blongs
house
neix
this
mangshais
dark
baisias.
very
"Inside of the house is very dark." (Chinese: 这屋子里面暗得很)
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
- 【dhaens，到】: until
- 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
- 【dhuas，过】: through
- 【buu，在】: on, in
- 【beeng，沿】: along
Bhousaeu
Guest
dzoeng
wait
meuu
you
dhaens
until
cop.
night
"The guest(s) waited for you until night." (Chinese: 客人等你到晚上)
Aeu
People
fei
walk
reuureuu
back and forth
dhuas
along
ngaeix
edge
bhous.
village
"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village." (Chinese: 人们络绎不绝走过村边)
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【niens，沿】: along
Na
He
niens
along
guen
road
hauux
that
hei
go
ohyaeu.
school
"He traveled along that road to school." (Chinese: 他沿着那条路去学校)
However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after a verb, e.g.,
Prepositions related to method
- 【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)
Kunaeu
They
aens
according to
laeustaeng
work
gieu
strong
ku
and
gax
weak
buuen
come
gauxtoengs.
distribute
"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers." (Chinese: 他们按劳动的强弱来分配)
Prepositions related to reason, or purpose
- 【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
- 【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
- 【cuuslax，由于】: because of
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.
Veeng
Master
duis
water buffalo
kweis
want
beuu
go back
fan
then
taeix
hit
duis,
water buffalo
guu ghais
in order that
duis
water buffalo
dzuuns
fast/quick
fei.
walk
"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast." (Chinese: 牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走)
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".
Prepositions related to object
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【toep，连】: even
- 【koms，连】: even
- 【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
- 【ku，对，和】: to
Na
He
vaet
poor
toep/koms
even
fok
place
gaux
to sleep
ngan
also
wenysnaeis.
no
"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep." (Chinese: 他穷得连睡的地方也没有)
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
- 【dhuas，过】: than
Ghueng
Younger sister
baiscuty
youngest
hlenymuuen
beautiful
dhuas
than
kun
plural
hluuekkauus.
older sister
"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters." (Chinese: 幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮)
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【uengx，和，跟】: with
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Na
He
buuen
come
doengs
play
uengx
with
hluuekpasghueng.
young brother
"He came to play with (his) little brother." (Chinese: 他来跟小弟玩)
Prepositions related to agent
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
- 【ia，被】: by
- 【ghoems，被】: by
- 【dheuu，把】: by using
Baisdza
Mother
dheuu
use
ghei
rice
roengx
cook
tax.
rice
"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice." (Chinese: 母亲把米煮成饭)
Remove ads
Auxiliary words
Summarize
Perspective
Structural auxiliary words
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"
When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,
However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,
The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,
Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,
Na
He
hei
go
dhaens
arrive
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
fan
then
beuuluung.
come back
"He went to the riverside and later he will come back." (Chinese: 他去到河边就回来)
Past tense auxiliary word
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
Acting-receiving auxiliary words
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
Pashlaus
Older brother
hou
my
duuengx
give
na
him
lax
AUX
zuu
one
lang
CLF
ba.
dog
"My brother gave him a dog." (Chinese: 我哥哥给他一只狗)
The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
Zuu
One
hom
CLF
zuuyunx
coconut
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
dheuu.
AUX
"This coconut is for you." (Chinese: 这一个椰子给你)
Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.
Accent markers
Summarize
Perspective
Indicative mood
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"
【lo, 了】
This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
Meuu
you
dhongneix
like this
vuek
do
goms
then
da
not
dhiu
right
lo.
ACCENT
"It is not right for you to do this." (Chinese: 你这样做就不对了)
【bhe, 啊】
This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
【ve/vi, 的, 了】
This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Qias
letter
neix
this
ghwaix
is not
hou
I
taeis
write
ve.
ACCENT
"This word is not what I wrote." (Chinese: 这字不是我写的)
Meuu
you
duuengx
give
hou
I
goms
then
bhaeis
finish
ve.
ACCENT
"Give (it to) me, then it's done." (Chinese: 你给我就行了)
【he，啦】
This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
【zo/zu，还…呢】
This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,
Aeu
person
reek
bad
hauux
that
da
not
hlaeux
die
zuho!
ACCENT
"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?" (Chinese: 那个坏人怎么还没死呢！)
【rus，呢】
This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
Fa
we
neix
this
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
zans
up
zuu
one
tienx
fish's name
luei,
down
da
not
laeis
see
rus.
ACCENT
"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see." (Chinese: 我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢)
Interrogative mood
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".
【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Meuu
You
beuu
come back
ngop
think
dhang
face
hou
my
vi
ACCENT
zuumos?
Q
"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?" (Chinese: 你回来是因为想我吗？)
【huux，hauux，呢，呀】
These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Gha
we
uengxtoengs
everyone
kweis
AUX
caep
carry by hands
cas
or
caem
carry or shoulders
nix?
Q
"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?" (Chinese: 咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？)
【zuuras/cuusras，吗】
These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
Hwanneix
today
hou
I
uengx
and
na
he
kweis
auxiliary
hei
go,
Damxax,
Sanya
meuu
you
loms
again
da
not
hei
go
zuuras?
Q
"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?" (Chinese: 今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？)
Kun
they
uengxtoengs
everyone
vuek
do
gong,
work
meuu
you
oms
but
da
not
vuek
do
cuusras?
Q
"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?" (Chinese: 他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？)
【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】
These words express a possibility, e.g.,
Imperative mood
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".
【as，吧，啊】
This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
【bas，啊，吧】
This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
【bhislo，咯】
This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
Hansneix
now
bhaeis
already
zaux
have
caqias
script
gha
we
Hlai,
Li,
uengxtoengs
everyone
guulax
should
tuuen
out.
kaux
strength
o
learn
bhislo!
IMP
"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!" (Chinese: 现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！)
Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
Meuu
You
hluumsghweuu
NEG-know
mos？
Q
Neix
This
man
is
caqias
script
Hlai
Li
bhislo!
ACCENT
"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!" (Chinese: 你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！)
【res，吧】
The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
Exclamatory mood
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
O!
EXCM
Pasceuus
guy
hauux
that
hleny
good
dhat
very
o!
EXCM
"Ah! That young man is great!" (Chinese: 啊！那小伙子好极了！)
Onomatopoeic words
Summarize
Perspective
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,
Hluuek'ueng
Girl
raeux
laugh
hihi
ONOMATOPOEIA
dhuus
in
hauux.
there
"The girl laughed there." (Chinese: 姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑)
Gaet
Frog (with-long-legs)
fan
then
loms
again
roeng,
call
"Beets!
ONOMATOPOEIA
Beets!
ONOMATOPOEIA
Beets!"
ONOMATOPOEIA
"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!" (Chinese: 长腿蛙又叫，"别！别！别")
More onomatopoeic words below:
Phrases
Summarize
Perspective
The construction of phrases and their basic rules
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
Coordinative phrases
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.
父
bais
mother
母
pas
father
"parents"
鸡
kai
chicken
和
ku/uengx
and
鸭
eps
duck
"chicken and duck"
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.
又打又骂
taeix
beat
loms
and
cas
scold
"beat and scold"
又酸又辣
fas
sour
hloeis
and
ghety
hot
"sour and hot"
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.
往
hei
go
往
hei
go
返
luueng
back
返
luueng
back
"go back and forth"
红
kiu
green
红
kiu
green
绿
ghaens
red
绿
ghaens
red
"green and red"
Attribute phrases
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Noun as the head word
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
Noun (the head word) + noun
猪
aek
meat
肉
bou
pig
"pork"
牛
hau
horn
角
duis
water buffalo
"buffalo's horn"
Noun + adjective
noms
water
ghan
cold
"cold water"
veengs
shirt/top
baen
new
"new shirt/top"
The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
enyx
small
veengs
shirt/top
"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"
enyx
small
duis
water buffalo
"calf (young water buffalo)"
enyx
small
dziengx
finger
"little finger (pinkie)"
Noun + verb
fok
place
gaux
sleep
"a place for sleeping"
daty
bird
bheny
fly
"(a) flying bird(s)"
Noun + pronoun
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
"my older brother"
blongs
house
hauux
that
"that house"
Number + classifier + noun (the head word)
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.
fus
three
zuen
CL
aeudza
old man
"three old men"
hlaus
two
hom
CL
dzuuem
egg
"two eggs"
Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
Dongxgoknaengsmiens
China
people
"Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help);
Adjective + noun (the head word)
hiuxdius
superior
odex
student
"superior student"
Verb + noun (the head word)
goeisgiet
resolve
muixdhoeis
problem
"resolving (the) problem"
Verb as the head word
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
Adverb + verb
da
not
oep
love/like
"don't like"
bhaeis
already
lax
eat
"already ate"
yous
Don't
rien
say
"don't say"
naeus
just
buuen
come
"just came"
ais
not willing to
lax
eat
"not willing to eat"
Adjective + verb
dzuuns
quick
rien
say
"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)
hleny
good
lax
eat
good (to) eat" (it means delicious)
gin
hurry
lax
eat
"busy eating"
Noun + verb
cai
wood
vuek
make
"made of wood"
uuhaux
tomorrow
hei
go
"(will) go tomorrow"
Verb + verb (the head word)
oep
like
lax
eat
"like to eat"
hei
go
dzok
steal
"go (and) steal"
gaux
lie down
dzueis
look
"reading lying down"
Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
"快快读，read quickly"
hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
"好好说，say (it) nicely"
liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"
Pronoun + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
"那样缝，sew like that"
dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
"怎么做？How is it to be done?"
qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"
Number + verb (the head word), or verb (the head word) + number
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
"打三下，beat (something) three times"
zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"
zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"
Adjective as the head word
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
Adjective + adjective (the head word)
hleny
good
coem
sharp
"so sharp"
reek
bad
coem
sharp
"not sharp"
Adverb + adjective (the head word)
duix
most
reek
bad
"worst"
bhaeis
already
reek
bad
"already (gone) bad"
Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
Adjective (the head word) + adverb
dzuuns
quick
dhat
very
"very quick"
hleny
good
baisias
very much
"very good"
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun
vaet
poor
neix
this
"this poor"
long
big
dhongneix
like this
"this big"
peek
high
dhonghauux
like that
"that high"
Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun
bheeng
wide
ras?
How?
"How wide?"
hloei
many/much
ras?
how?
"How many/much?"
Adjective (the head word) + noun
long
big
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
bheeng
wide
laengs
sea
"wide as the sea"
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
long
big
(dhong)
as
nyiu
bull
"big as a bull"
Verb-object phrases
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
Verb (the head word) + noun (object)
lax
eat
tax
rice
"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"
dzueis
look
qias
book
"read book (the meaning is to read)"
Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)
dheuu
take
hauux
that
"take that one"
ngwaety
call
meuu
you
"(I'll) call you"
bhiek
carry (something) on shoulder
meshes
what?
"carry what"
Verb (the head word) + verb (object)
dhas
fear
rien
say
"怕说，fears to say"
auux
dare
vuuek
do
"dare to do (something)"
Verb (the head word) + number (object)
caty
buy
zuu
one
hom
CL
"buy one"
lax
eat
fus
three
waeu
CL
"eat three bowls (of food)"
Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
leis
thin
aeu
people
"(makes) people thin"
ghweis
fat
aeu
people
"(makes) people fat"
Complement phrases
The complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
Verb-complement phrase
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)
fei
walk
hluet
go into
"walk in"
dheuu
take
buuen
come
"plan to come"
Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)
lax
eat
kuuem
full
"ate (until) full (stuffed)"
riemx
fix
hleny
good
"fixed well"
roengx
cook
fui
cooked
"cooked thoroughly"
Verb (the head word) + number (complement)
fei
walk
zuu
one
guen
CL
"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
fun
run
ba
five
hwan
day
ba
five
cop
night
"(it) rained five days and five nights"
Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
bhaeis
already
hlaeux
die
duis
water buffalo
he.
ACCENT
"The water buffalo already died."
Adjective-complement phrase
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.
Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)
kaeix
cold
dhaens
as to
nyan
shiver
"(so) cold as to shiiver"
reek
bad
haeis
smell
dhaens
as to
asras
who
ruus
all
ais
not willing to
dheuu
take
"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"
Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)
gheuu
thin
dhaens
as to
ghau
transparency
"(so) thin as to be transparent"
fui
cooked
dhaens
as to
ghaens
red
"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"
Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)
long
big
fus
three
boux
CL/year
"three years older"
hloei
many
zuu
one
hom
CL
"one more"
peek
high
zuutom
half
ghwous
head
"a half-head taller"
Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
Long
big
hwoet
wind
bhe！
ACCENT
"The wind (is) strong!"
Cok
hurt
bok
stomach
dhat
very
lo！
ACCENT
"A stomachache! (very painful)"
Subject-predicate phrases
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
Wenysnaeis
no
aeu
people
rien
say
na
he
reek.
bad
"No one said he (is) bad."
Uengxtoengs
everyone
ruus
all
rien
say
gong
stuff
neix
this
fas.
sour
"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."
Daty
bird
bheny
fly
lo.
ACCENT
"Birds have flown (away)."
Na
he
buuen
come
lo.
ACCENT
"He has come."
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
Sentence construction and the basic rules
Summarize
Perspective
在河边的房子
blongs
house
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux
that
"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"
我的哥哥和你的弟弟
pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
my older brother and your younger brother
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
那房子在那条河边
Blongs
house
hauux
that
dhuus
in/exist
ngaeix
edge/bank
noms
river
hauux.
that
"That house (is) on the bank of that river."
我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人
Pashlaus
older brother
hou
my
uengx
and
pasghueng
younger brother
meuu
your
ngan
also
gaengxnaengs.
worker
"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
| Subject
主语 |
Predicate
谓语 | |||||||
| Verb
述语 |
Object
宾语 | |||||||
| (Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
Adverbial
状语 |
Head word
中心语 |
(Adverbial)
（状语） |
(Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
| Complement
补语 | ||||||||
Subjects
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.
Predicates
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
Passive voice
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
鸡被狐狸咬了
Kai
Chicken
ghoems
by
dauxmuty
fox
gaeny
bite
bhe.
ACCENT
"A chicken was bit by a fox."
那村子被火烧了
Bhous
Village
hauux
that
ghoems
by
fei
fire
cuis
burn
lo.
ACCENT
"That village was burned by fire."
Objects
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
母亲给她一条裙子
Baisdza
Mother
duuengx
give
na
her
lax
auxiliary word
zuu
one
ruet
CL
riens.
skirt
"Mother gave her a skirt."
我教你黎话
Hou
I
dun
teach
meuu
you
lax
auxiliary word
tun
language
Hlai.
Li
"I teach you the Li lauguage."
哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝
Pashlaus
older brother
duuengx
give
pasghueng
younger brother
dheuu
auxiliary
zuu
one
hom
CL
zuucoeis.
litchi
"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
母亲挑水给弟弟
Baisdza
Mother
caep
carry
noms
water
duuengx
give
pasghueng.
younger brother
"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."
姐姐煮饭给妹妹
Hluuekkauus
Older sister
roengx
cook
tax
rice
duuengx
give
baisghueng.
younger sister
"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."
Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
他给我衣服
Na
He
duuengx
give
veengs
shirt/top
duuengx
give
hou.
me
"He gave a shirt to me."
父亲不给我糖
Pasdza
Father
da
not
duuengx
give
nomstaengs
sugar
duuengx
give
dhes.
me
"(My) Father did not give me sugar."
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
你给他
Meuu
You
duuengx
give
na
him
dheuu.
auxiliary word
"You give it to him."
这把小刀给你
Zuu
One
pienx
CL
enyx
small
gas
knife
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This small knife (was) given (to) you."
这只鸡给你
Zuu
One
lang
CL
kai
chicken
neix
this
duuengx
give
meuu
you
lax.
auxiliary word
"This chicken (was) given (to) you."
Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."
Complement
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
Sequential complement
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."
Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."
Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."
Directional complement
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
| fei buuen
walk come 走来, walk and come |
fei beuu
walk come back 走回去, walk back |
fei dhaens
walk arrive 走到, walk to |
fei kaen
walk go up 走上, walk up |
fei hluet
walk go into 走进, walk into |
| fei hei
walk go 走去, walk and go |
fei luueng
walk go back 走回来, walk back |
fei dhuas
walk pass 走过, walk through |
fei luei
walk go down 走下, walk down |
fei tuuen
walk go out 走出, walk out |
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought something here."
Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."
Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
"老人回来了，The old man came back."
Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."
Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."
Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."
Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."
Quantitative complement
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."
Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."
Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."
Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."
Attribute
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)
aek duis
meat water buffalo
"牛肉，beef"
feekx hweek
skin banana
"香蕉皮，banana peel"
coem coeis
fruit litchi
"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"
dzuuem kai
egg chicken
"鸡蛋，chicken egg"
Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."
Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)
tau loek
pot black
"黑锅，black pot"
zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
"一件白上衣，one white shirt"
noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."
Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."
Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."
Number (attribute) + noun (head word)
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."
Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."
Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."
Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."
Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"
hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"
zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"
Adverbial
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
Adverbs as adverbials
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."
Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."
Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don't say/speak word
"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"
Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."
Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
"他真的来了，He really came."
Na vuek luueng.
He do back
"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."
Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."
Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."
Adjectives as adverbials
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
"不锋利，not so sharp"
Gas neix hleny coem hos！
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"
Dais fei as, baisdza！
Slow walk accent, old lady!
"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！
You quick come accent
"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！
You come quick quick accent
"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."
Verbs as adverbials
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."
Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"
Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."
Nouns as adverbials
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
"这是木制的，This is made of wood."
Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"
Pronouns as adverbials
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
"他这样说，He said (it) like this."
Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"
Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."
Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."
Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"
Prepositional phrases as adverbials
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
"被狗咬，bit by a dog"
dheuu na taeix
by him hit
"被他打，hit by him"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"
toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"
dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."
ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
"对他说，say to him"
uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
"同你去，(I'll) go with you."
meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
"你和他玩，You play with him."
Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."
Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."
enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
"像针一样小，as small as a needle."
Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."
Sentence patterns and types
Summarize
Perspective
Sentence patterns and their basic rules
Simple sentence
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
Subject-predicate sentences
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."
Na hei bhe.
He go accent
"他去了，He went."
Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
"我吃饭，I eat rice."
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."
No subject sentences
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."
Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
"人真多，(There are) so many people."
Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
"鱼死了，The fish died."
One word sentence
Asras？
Who？
"谁？Who?"
Ahyo!
Oh my!
"哎哟！Oh my!"
A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis."
You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to
A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'
A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意
Compound sentences
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
Coordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
The parallel relationship
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."
The progressive relationship
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."
Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？
Eat potato or eat rice
"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"
Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."
Subordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
The transitional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."
The conditional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."
Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."
Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."
The causal relationship
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness
"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."
Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."
Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give
"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."
When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."
Compressed compound sentences
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more... think more... happy
"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."
Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more... feed more... fat
"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more... do more... fast
"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more... come more... many
"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."
Sentence types and their basic rules
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
Declarative sentence
Affirmative sentence
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."
Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."
Negative sentence
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."
Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."
Interrogative sentence
Using interrogative pronouns
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"
Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"
Neix man meshes?
This is what?
"这是什么？What is this?"
Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"
Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
"他何时来？When (will) he come?"
zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"
Using interrogative accent words
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"
Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"
Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Using negation words ("da")
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
"你要去吗？Won't you go?"
Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"
Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"
Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"
Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"
Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"
Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don't want?
"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"
Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"
Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？
He go or I go?
"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"
Imperative sentence
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
"来！Come！"
Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don't do
"别做！Quit doing that!"
Exclamatory sentence
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.
An accented word in one word sentence
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"
Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"
An accented word follows one word or one phrase
Cok ho!
Pain accent
"疼啊！Ouch!"
Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
"好多啊！So many!"
An accented word at the end of a sentence
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"
Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Influence of Chinese grammar
Summarize
Perspective
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Attribute phrases
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,
新
dienx
new
中国
Dongxgok
China
"new China"
新
dienx
new
裙子
gun
skirt
"new skirt"
大
dhuax
big
救星
giuscex
savior
"great savior"
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
新中国
Dongxgok
China
baen
new
"new China"
这是新裙子
neix
DEM.this
man
is
gun
skirt
baen.
new
"This is a new skirt."
大救星
giuscex
savior
long
big
"great savior"
Verb-object-complement phrases
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
Interrogative sentences
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
你
Meuu
You
去
hei
go
不
da
NEG
去？
hei?
go
"Are you going?"
The possessive auxiliary word gaeis
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,
北京
Bhakgengs
Beijing
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
颐和园
Ihwashueis
the name of emperor's Summer Palace
"Beijing's Summer Palace"
海南
Haeisnaems
Hainan
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
乐东
Lokdhongs
Ledong
县
gwaeis
township
"Hainan's Ledong township"
早晨
gaeusdhom
morning
的
gaeis
AUX.POSS
太阳
cahwan
sun
"the morning's sun"
References
Bibliography
Wikiwand - on
Seamless Wikipedia browsing. On steroids.
Remove ads