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History of sugar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The history of sugar mainly concerns the background in the production of sucrose, the principal component of table sugar. One can break down the history into many ways, but all history begins in Asia followed by the migration of cultivation and associated industry.[1][2]
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Origins of sugarcane
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There are two centers of domestication for sugarcane: one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S. officinarum.[4][5]
Saccharum officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity. Beginning at around 6,000 BP they were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum. From New Guinea it spread westwards to Island Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum.[5]
The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan where S. sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane exist in the Proto-Austronesian languages in Taiwan, reconstructed as *təbuS or **CebuS, which became *tebuh in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter S. officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in Island Southeast Asia.[6][7]
From Island Southeast Asia, S. officinarum was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with Saccharum sinense and Saccharum barberi. From there it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean.[5][3]
India, where the process of refining cane juice into granulated crystals was developed, was often visited by imperial convoys (such as those from China) to learn about cultivation and sugar refining.[8] By the sixth century AD, sugar cultivation and processing had reached Persia. In the Mediterranean, sugarcane was possibly brought through the Arab medieval expansion.[9] "Wherever they went, the medieval Arabs brought with them sugar, the product and the technology of its production."[10]
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Asia
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Sugarcane is native of tropical areas such as the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and Southeast Asia.[11][12] Different species seem to have originated from different locations; Saccharum barberi originated in India, and S. edule and S. officinarum came from New Guinea.[12][13] One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.[14]
In the tradition of Indian medicine (āyurveda), sugarcane is known by the name Ikṣu, and sugarcane juice is known as Phāṇita. Its varieties, synonyms and characteristics are defined in nighaṇṭus such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes).[15] Sugar remained relatively unimportant until around 350 AD when the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and transport. It was then considered as 'sweet spice' and Indian traders started trading sugar outside India.[16]
In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda (Devanagari: खण्ड, Khaṇḍa), which is the source of the word candy.[17] Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar along the various trade routes they travelled.[18] Traveling Buddhist monks took sugar crystallization methods to China.[19] During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India, Indian envoys in Tang China taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.[20] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain technology for sugar refining.[21]
Sugar was first produced from sugarcane plants in India sometime after the first century AD.[22] The derivation of the word "sugar" is thought to be from Sanskrit शर्करा (śarkarā), meaning "ground or candied sugar," originally "grit, gravel". Sanskrit literature from ancient India, written between 1500 and 500 BC provides the first documentation of the cultivation of sugar cane and of the manufacture of sugar in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent.[23][24]
The major industrialization of sugar production in the New World eventually rejuvenated sugar production in Asia This rebalancing was expedited by the abolition of slavery, which gave the New World an economic advantage. In addition to India, Indonesia and Thailand became major exporters of sugar.[25]
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Middle East
The cultivation and knowledge of sugar cane migrated to the Middle East. Often this migration was attributed to the influence of Nearchus, admiral of Alexander the Great. He had learned of sugar in 325 BC through his participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander (Arrian, Anabasis).[26][27] Eventually this knowledge led to major production in Persia, Syria, Cyprus, Sicily, and especially Egypt. These technologies were largely destroyed by the Turks.[28]
Europe
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The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40–90 AD) attested to quality of Indian sugar in his 1st century CE medical treatise De Materia Medica:
There is a kind of coalesced honey called sakcharon [i.e. sugar] found in reeds in India and Eudaimon Arabia similar in consistency to salt and brittle enough to be broken between the teeth like salt,
The Roman Pliny the Elder also described sugar in his 1st century CE Natural History: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."[31]
Crusaders brought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, the Republic of Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener.[32] Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".[33] In the 15th century, Venice was the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe.[14]
A feast given in Tours in 1457 by Gaston de Foix, which is "probably the best and most complete account we have of a late medieval banquet" includes the first mention of sugar sculptures, as the final food brought in was "a heraldic menagerie sculpted in sugar: lions, stags, monkeys ... each holding in paw or beak the arms of the Hungarian king".[34] Other recorded grand feasts in the decades following included similar pieces.[35] Originally the sculptures seem to have been eaten in the meal, but later they become merely table decorations, the most elaborate called trionfi. Several significant sculptors are known to have produced them; in some cases their preliminary drawings survive. Early ones were in brown sugar, partly cast in molds, with the final touches carved. They continued to be used until at least the Coronation Banquet for Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1903; among other sculptures every guest was given a sugar crown to take away.[36]
Genoa, one of the centers of distribution, became known for candied fruit, while Venice specialized in pastries, sweets (candies), and sugar sculptures. Sugar was considered to have "valuable medicinal properties" as a "warm" food under prevailing categories, being "helpful to the stomach, to cure cold diseases, and sooth lung complaints".[37]
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Canary Islands and Madiera
Canary Islands and the island of Madiera played a central role in the western migration of sugar industry. Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conquest in the fifteenth century carried sugar south-west of Iberia. Henry the Navigator introduced cane to Madeira in 1425, while the Spanish, having eventually subdued the Canary Islands, introduced sugar cane to them.[9][38][39] By 1492, Madeira was producing over 1,400,000 kilograms (3,000,000 lb) of sugar annually.[40]
Known worldwide by the end of the medieval period, sugar was very expensive and was considered a "fine spice",[41] but from about the year 1500, technological improvements and New World sources began turning it into a much cheaper bulk commodity.[42]
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Caribbean and South America
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In 1493, on his second voyage, Christopher Columbus carried sugarcane seedlings to the New World, in particular Hispaniola.[9] The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; and many sugar mills had been constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.[43] The approximately 3,000 small sugar mills that were built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for cast iron gears, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar production. Sugar mill construction sparked development of the technological skills needed for a nascent Industrial Revolution in the early 17th century.[43] Soon Colonial Brazil became the epicenter. Now the principal producer of sugar, Brazil. By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and there were another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil, Demarara, and Surinam. After 1625, sugarcane was introduced to the Caribbean islands from South America by the Dutch. Cultivation expanded across the region, including areas such as Barbados and the Virgin Islands.[44]
During the 18th century, sugar became enormously popular. Great Britain, for example, consumed five times as much sugar in 1770 as in 1710.[45] By 1750, sugar surpassed grain as "the most valuable commodity in European trade — it made up a fifth of all European imports and in the last decades of the century four-fifths of the sugar came from the British and French colonies in the West Indies."[45] From the 1740s until the 1820s, sugar was Britain's most valuable import.[46]
The sugar market went through a series of booms. The heightened demand and production of sugar came about to a large extent due to a great change in the eating habits of many Europeans. For example, they began consuming jams, candy, tea, coffee, cocoa, processed foods, and other sweet victuals in much greater amounts. In Britain, tea sweetened with sugar became a daily staple not only among the wealthy but also among the working class. Short tea breaks during the workday allowed laborers to quickly replenish energy, with sugary tea serving as an affordable and accessible source of calories, particularly for those engaged in physically demanding jobs.[47]
Reacting to this increasing trend, the Caribbean islands took advantage of the situation and set about producing still more sugar. In fact, they produced up to ninety percent of the sugar that the western Europeans consumed. Some islands proved more successful than others when it came to producing the product. In Barbados and the British Leeward Islands, sugar provided 93% and 97% respectively of exports.
Planters later began developing ways to boost production even more. For example, they began using more farming methods when growing their crops. They also developed more advanced mills and began using better types of sugarcane. In the eighteenth century "the French colonies were the most successful, especially Saint-Domingue, where better irrigation, water-power and machinery, together with concentration on newer types of sugar, increased profits."[45] Despite these and other improvements, the price of sugar reached soaring heights, especially during events such as the revolt against the Dutch[48] and the Napoleonic Wars. Sugar remained in high demand, and the islands' planters knew exactly how to take advantage of the situation.
As Europeans established sugar plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell in Europe. By the 18th century all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later confectionery and chocolates became extremely popular. Many Britons (especially children) also ate jams.[49] Suppliers commonly sold sugar in the form of a sugarloaf and consumers required sugar nips, a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces.
In the 19th century Cuba rose to become the richest land in the Caribbean (with sugar as its dominant crop) because it formed the only major island landmass free of mountainous terrain. Instead, nearly three-quarters of its land formed a rolling plain — ideal for planting crops. Cuba also prospered above other islands because Cubans used better methods when harvesting the sugar crops: they adopted modern milling methods such as watermills, enclosed furnaces, steam engines, and vacuum pans. All these technologies increased productivity. Cuba also retained slavery longer than most of the rest of the Caribbean islands.[50]
Beginning in the mid-1740s, the French colony of Saint-Domingue emerged as the world’s largest producer of sugar.[51] However, following the abolition of slavery and the colony’s independence in 1804, sugar production declined sharply.[52] In the following decades, Cuba surpassed Saint-Domingue and became the leading global producer of sugar.[53]
The industrialization of the Colombian industry started in 1901 with the establishment of Manuelita, the first steam-powered sugar mill in South America, by Latvian Jewish immigrant James Martin Eder.
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Globalization of cane sugar
After being established in Brazil and the Caribbean area, sugar production spread to newer European colonies in Africa and in the Pacific. It became especially important in Fiji. Mauritius, Natal, and Queensland (Australia).
Role of slavery and indentured workers
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Sugar is complicated and time-consuming to grow and process. More so than tobacco, and even more so than cotton, sugar demanded far more labour, capital and expertise for successful cultivation and processing. This aspect led to the use of slavery. The labour force at first included European indentured servants and local Native American, and African enslaved people. However, European diseases such as smallpox and African ones such as malaria and yellow fever soon reduced the numbers of local Native Americans.[43] Europeans were also very susceptible to malaria and yellow fever, and the supply of indentured servants was limited. African enslaved people became the primary labor force on sugar plantations, due to their relative resistance to diseases such as malaria and yellow fever, and the establishment of transatlantic slave trading systems along the African coast.[54][55]
"When we work at the sugar-canes, and the mill snatches hold of a finger, they cut off the hand; and when we attempt to run away, they cut off the leg; both cases have happened to me. This is the price at which you eat sugar in Europe."
The abolition of slavery in the 1800's led to a partial shift in the sugar production away from the Americas back to East Asia.[25]
Even as slavery faded, sugar production areas still tended to use indentured labour rather than enslaved people, with workers "shipped across the world ... [and] ... held in conditions of near slavery for up to ten years... In the second half of the nineteenth century over 450,000 indentured labourers went from India to the British West Indies, others went to Natal, Mauritius and Fiji (where they became a majority of the population). In Queensland workers from the Pacific islands were moved in. The Dutch transferred large numbers of people from Java to Surinam."[56] Illustrative is the case of Hawaii, where hundreds of thousands of Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos were brought in.[57] It is said that the sugar plantations would not have thrived without the aid of the African enslaved people. In Colombia, the planting of sugar started very early on, and entrepreneurs imported many African enslaved people to cultivate the fields.
In more modern times, the sugar industry remained notorious for poor working conditions, even in England.[58]
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The rise of beet sugar
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Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the early 19th century, when it became more widely available, due to the rise of beet sugar in Prussia, and later in France under Napoleon.[59] Beet sugar was a German invention, since, in 1747, Andreas Sigismund Marggraf announced the discovery of sugar in beets and devised a method using alcohol to extract it.[60] Marggraf's student, Franz Karl Achard, devised an economical industrial method to extract the sugar in its pure form in the late 18th century.[61][62] Achard first produced beet sugar in 1783 in Kaulsdorf. In 1801, under the patronage of King Frederick William III of Prussia (reigned 1797–1840), the world's first beet sugar production facility was established in Cunern, Silesia (then part of Prussia).[63] While never profitable, this plant operated from 1801 until its destruction during the Napoleonic Wars (ca. 1802–1815).[citation needed]
The works of Marggraf and Achard were the starting point for the sugar industry in Europe,[64] and for the modern sugar industry in general, since sugar was no longer a luxury product and a product almost only produced in warmer climates.[65]
In France, Napoleon cut off from Caribbean imports by a British blockade, and at any rate not wanting to fund British merchants, banned imports of sugar in 1813 and ordered the planting of 32,000 hectares with beetroot.[66] A beet sugar industry emerged, especially after Jean-Baptiste Quéruel industrialized the operation of Benjamin Delessert.
The United Kingdom Beetroot Sugar Association was established in 1832 but efforts to establish sugar beet in the UK were not very successful. Sugar beets provided approximately 2/3 of world sugar production in 1899. 46% of British sugar came from Germany and Austria. Sugar prices in Britain collapsed towards the end of the 19th century. The British Sugar Beet Society was set up in 1915 and by 1930 there were 17 factories in England and one in Scotland, supported under the provisions of the British Sugar (Subsidy) Act 1925. By 1935 homegrown sugar was 27.6% of British consumption. By 1929 109,201 people were employed in the British sugar beet industry, with about 25,000 more casual labourers.[67]
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Mechanization
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Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat.
In 1813 the British chemist Edward Charles Howard invented a method of refining sugar that involved boiling the cane juice not in an open kettle, but in a closed vessel heated by steam and held under partial vacuum. At reduced pressure, water boils at a lower temperature, and this development both saved fuel and reduced the amount of sugar lost through caramelization. Further gains in fuel-efficiency came from the multiple-effect evaporator, designed by the United States engineer Norbert Rillieux (perhaps as early as the 1820s, although the first working model dates from 1845). This system consisted of a series of vacuum pans, each held at a lower pressure than the previous one. The vapors from each pan served to heat the next, with minimal heat wasted. Modern industries use multiple-effect evaporators for evaporating water.
The process of separating sugar from molasses also received mechanical attention: David Weston first applied the centrifuge to this task in Hawaii in 1852.
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Other sweeteners
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Even after refined sugarcane became more widely available during the European colonial era,[68] palm sugar was preferred in Java and other sugar producing parts of southeast Asia, and along with coconut sugar, is still used locally to make desserts today.[69][70]
In the United States and Japan, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has replaced sugar in some uses, particularly in soft drinks and processed foods. The process by which high-fructose corn syrup is produced was first developed by Richard O. Marshall and Earl R. Kooi in 1957.[71] The industrial production process was refined by Dr. Y. Takasaki at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Ministry of International Trade and Industry of Japan in 1965–1970. HFCS derived from corn, is more economical because the domestic U.S. price of sugar is twice the global price[72][73][74] High-fructose corn syrup became an attractive substitute, and is preferred over cane sugar among the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers. Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi use sugar in other nations, but switched to high-fructose corn syrup in the United States in 1984.[75]
The average American consumed approximately 37.8 lb (17.1 kg) of high-fructose corn syrup in 2008, versus 46.7 lb (21.2 kg) of sucrose.[76] Most commonly used blends of high-fructose corn syrup contain a nearly one-to-one ratio of fructose and glucose, just like common sucrose, and should therefore be metabolically identical after the first steps of sucrose metabolism, in which the sucrose is split into fructose and glucose components. At the very least, the increasing prevalence of high-fructose corn syrup has certainly led to an increase in added sugar calories in food, which may reasonably increase the incidence of these and other diseases.[77]
Artificial sweeteners were introduced first as saccharine in the 1870's.[78]
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Notes
Bibliography
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