Information and media literacy

Information and media literacy (IML) enables people to show and make informed judgments as users of information and media, as well as to become skillful creators and producers of information and media messages.^[1] IML is a combination of information literacy and media literacy.^[2] The transformative nature of IML includes creative works and creating new knowledge; to publish and collaborate responsibly requires ethical, cultural and social understanding.

IML is also known as media and information literacy (MIL).^[3] UNESCO first adopted the term MIL in 2008^[4] as a "composite concept" combining the competencies of information literacy and media literacy.^[5] UNESCO emphasizes the importance of global education in media and information literacy, and in 2013 defined Media and Information Literacy (MIL) as the ability to access, evaluate, use, and create information and media content in critical and ethical ways.^[6]

Prior to the 1990s, the primary focus of information literacy was research skills.^[7] Media literacy, a study that emerged around the 1970s, traditionally focuses on the analysis and the delivery of information through various forms of media.^[8] Information literacy, as a skill proposed as early as 1974, centers on an individual's ability to recognize information needs and effectively locate, evaluate, and use information.^[9] These days, the study of information literacy has been extended to include the study of media literacy in many countries like the UK,^[10] Australia and New Zealand.^[11] It is also referred to as information and communication technologies (ICT) in the United States.^[12][13] Educators such as Gregory Ulmer have also defined the field as electracy.Media literacy is the ability to actively inquire into and think critically about information. It includes the ability to understand, evaluate, and create media content, and is an essential skill in today’s information society.^[9] Livingstone, Van Couvering, and Thumim (2008) described the distinction between media literacy and information literacy: "Media literacy views media as lenses or windows for observing the world and expressing the self, whereas information literacy sees information as a tool for taking action in the world."^[14]

Integration of Media and Information Literacy

Historically, the fields of information and media literacy have been separate, but over the course of the 21st century there have been calls to integrate both fields. Most definitions of information and media literacy include not only the abilities to locate, access, and analyze information but also the ability to create information. Only by integrating media literacy with information literacy can students better understand the sources of information and how it is used.^[15] Media education has primarily taken place in educational institutions, while information education has primarily occurred in libraries.^[16] Discussions surrounding the overlap of information literacy and media literacy came to fruition in the mid-to-late 2000s and 2010s as noted by Marcus Leaning.^[17]

In the digital age

See also: 21st century skills

The definition of literacy is "the ability to read and write".^[18] In practice many more skills are needed to locate, critically assess and make effective use of information.^[19] By extension, literacy now also includes the ability to manage and interact with digital information and media, in personal, shared and public domains.^{[20][21][22][23]}

Historically, "information literacy" has largely been seen from the relatively top-down, organisational viewpoint of library and information sciences.^[24] However the same term is also used to describe a generic "information literacy" skill.^[24]

The modern digital age has led to the proliferation of information spread across the Internet. Individuals must be able to recognize whether information is true or false and better yet know how to locate, evaluate, use, and communicate information in various formats;^[25] this is called information literacy.

Towards the end of the 20th century, literacy was redefined to include "new literacies" relating to the new skills needed in everyday experience.^[23][19] "Multiliteracies" recognised the multiplicity of literacies, which were often used in combination.^[26][23][19] "21st century skills" frameworks link new literacies to wider life skills such as creativity, critical thinking, accountability.^[27][23]

What these approaches have in common is a focus on the multiple skills needed by individuals to navigate changing personal, professional and public "information landscapes".^{[23][24][28][19][29]}

As the conventional definition of literacy itself continues to evolve among practitioners,^[30] so too has the definition of information literacies. Noteworthy definitions include:

• Zurkowski defined information literacy as "the ability to find known or knowable content on any subject."^[15]
• CILIP, the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Practitioners, defines information literacy as "the ability to think critically and make balanced judgements about any information we find and use".^[22]
• In the United States, the definition proposed by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) is the most widely recognized. It defines information literacy as “a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and use the needed information effectively.”^[15]
• JISC, the Joint Information Systems Committee, refers to information literacy as one of six "digital capabilities", seen as an interconnected group of elements centered on "ICT literacy".^[21]
• Mozilla groups digital and other literacies as "21st century skills", a "broad set of knowledge, skills, habits and traits that are important to succeed in today's world".^[31]
• UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, recognizing the necessity of teaching and learning both traditional and new types of information, the global importance of education was emphasized in 2008 through the “Teacher Media and Information Literacy (MIL) Curriculum”. It defines MIL as a set of competencies that enable citizens to access, retrieve, understand, evaluate, use, create, and share information and media content in all formats through various tools in a critical, ethical, and effective manner, so as to participate in and carry out personal, professional, and social activities.^[15] Besides this, UNESCO also asserts information literacy as a "universal human right".^[20]

21st-century students

In modern society, although the overall level of education has improved, the channels for knowledge production and dissemination have become increasingly diverse and commercialized, and traditional authoritative institutions no longer hold a monopoly over knowledge validation. While digital platforms have broadened access to information, they have also weakened trust mechanisms and evaluation standards, making epistemological skepticism a norm. Moreover, with the rise and spread of social media, misinformation and disinformation can be just as easily accessed in both densely and sparsely populated areas. These factors further underscore the importance of information literacy education.^[32]

The IML learning capacities prepare students to be 21st century literate. According to Jeff Wilhelm (2000), "technology has everything to do with literacy. And being able to use the latest electronic technologies has everything to do with being literate."^[33] He supports his argument with J. David Bolter's statement that "if our students are not reading and composing with various electronic technologies, then they are illiterate. They are not just unprepared for the future; they are illiterate right now, in our current time and context".^[34] In a broader sense, developing this advanced competency of media and information literacy is essential, as it is crucial for students to exercise their freedom of expression in the 21st century.^[32]

Wilhelm's statement is supported by the 2005 Wired World Phase II (YCWW II) survey conducted by the Media Awareness Network of Canada^[35] on 5000 Grade 4 – 11 students.^[36] The key findings of the survey were:

• 62% of Grade 4 students prefer the Internet.
• 38% of Grade 4 students prefer the library.
• 91% of Grade 11 students prefer the Internet.
• 9% of Grade 11 students prefer the library.^[37]

Marc Prensky (2001) uses the term "digital native" to describe people who have been brought up in a digital world.^[38] The Internet has been a pervasive element of young people's home lives. 94% of kids reported that they had Internet access at home, and a significant majority (61%) had a high-speed connection.

By the time kids reach Grade 11, half of them (51 percent) have their own Internet-connected computer, separate and apart from the family computer.^[39] The survey also showed that young Canadians are now among the most wired in the world. Contrary to the earlier stereotype of the isolated and awkward computer nerd, today's wired kid is a social kid.^[40]

In general, many students are better networked through the use of technology than most teachers and parents, who may not understand the abilities of technology. Students are no longer limited to desktop computer. They may use mobile technologies to graph mathematical problems, research a question for social studies, text message an expert for information, or send homework to a drop box.^[41] Students are accessing information by using MSN, personal Web pages, Weblogs and social networking sites.

In reality, students often lack training in critical thinking and argumentation, and their ability to express viewpoints through digital media is uneven. In particular, they tend to have weak skills in multimodal expression—such as creating videos, podcasts, or dialogue-based content—which limits their ability to engage with diverse perspectives and skeptics in digital environments. This is why integrating media and information literacy training into education is imperative.^[15]

UNESCO provides the “Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers,” aimed at helping educators and librarians prepare to teach media and information literacy to students. The curriculum can serve as a model course and be adapted locally based on the current information landscape to support better understanding of information.^[42]

Teaching and learning in the 21st century

As Len Masterman said, "The challenge for today’s teachers—most of whom are digital immigrants—is how to continue delivering the legacy content of the old curriculum while also providing future-oriented content that helps students prepare for life in the 21st century." (Alessia Zanin-Yost & Freie, 2020) In order to effectively engage digital-native students, educators must not only become proficient in digital communication but also adopt the modes of thinking and interaction that align with the digital culture of today's learners.^[43]

The terms “digital natives” and “digital immigrants” were first introduced by Prensky, who argued that digital natives are inherently familiar with digital media. In today’s world, young people undoubtedly belong to this group. Their way of thinking differs from previous generations—they tend to prefer multitasking, visual learning, random access to information, instant feedback, and gamified formats.^[43]

However, Neil Selwyn criticized the notion of “digital natives” as an overly generalized label lacking empirical support. He pointed out that young people’s digital behavior varies greatly and that their technological competence is more strongly influenced by educational background and social resources.^[44]

Learning any language is best done early in a child's development. In acquiring a second language, Hyltenstam (1992) found that around the age of 6 and 7 seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, second language learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of very few actual errors, have enough errors that would set them apart from the first language group. Although more recent research suggests this impact still exists up to 10 years of age.^[45][46]

Kindergarten and grades 1 and 2 are therefore critical to student success as digital natives because not all students have a "digital"-rich childhood. Students learning technological skills before Grade 3 can become equivalently bilingual. Some researchers have found that "Language-minority students who cannot read and write proficiently in English cannot participate fully in American schools, workplaces, or society. They face limited job opportunities and earning power."^[47][48]

In the curriculum

Information and Media Literacy has been embraced in the curriculum in order to develop the strategies needed for informed, critical, and engaged individuals and citizens. Organizations such as the European Commission and UNESCO have been promoting initiatives and providing instructional documentation about the curricular integration of IML.^[49]

Europe and Central Asia

Europe

United Kingdom

In the UK, education of Information and Media Literacy is typically introduced through mainstream formal education in secondary, further and higher education curriculum (such as Media Studies classes), broader curriculum or extra-curricular activity (such as literacy education or Citizenship), e-safety policies, or computer and information literacy/education outside of the formal educational system.^[50]

IML has been promoted among educators through an information literacy website^[51] developed by several organizations that have been involved in the field. Ofcom, or the Office of Communications, is another organization that researches and promotes IML in the UK.^[52]

France

In France, the development of media and information literacy is officially supported by the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Education. Their policies promote the integration of media literacy into public libraries and schools, and support the country’s central media literacy institution — CLEMI (Centre for Media and Information Education).^[53]

Germany

In Germany, with the backing of national policies, the importance of media education has been integrated into school curricula, although the level of adoption varies across federal states.^[53]

Finland

Finland has systematically integrated information and media literacy into its national curriculum, emphasizing critical thinking, media analysis, and digital citizenship at all educational levels from primary to upper secondary school. This education is delivered through an interdisciplinary approach, spanning language, social studies, and technology courses, and is supported by the National Audiovisual Institute, which provides resources and guidance to build a comprehensive and robust educational framework.^[54]

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

A study published in the Journal of Curriculum Studies Research in 2025 pointed out that Kazakhstani schools need to integrate media literacy education across all grades and subjects, supported by appropriate policies, resource allocation, and teacher professional development.^[55]

Kyrgyzstan

At the AMICAL education conference, twelve universities in Kyrgyzstan attempted to formally integrate media literacy courses into the higher education curriculum, requiring all instructors to undergo relevant training. The conference included summaries and discussions of the problems and challenges encountered during the development and implementation processes.^[56]

North America

United States

IML is included in the Partnership for the 21st Century program sponsored by the US Department of Education.^[57] Special mandates have been provided to Arizona, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, New Jersey, Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Dakota, West Virginia and Wisconsin.^[58] Individual school districts, such as the Clarkstown Central School District,^[59] have also developed their own information literacy curriculum. ISTE has also produced the National Educational Technology Standards for Students, Teachers and Administrators.

Canada

In British Columbia, Canada, the Ministry of Education has de-listed the Information Technology K to 7 IRP^[60] as a stand-alone course. It is still expected that all the prescribed learning outcomes continue to be integrated. Unfortunately, there has been no clear direction to implement IML.

The BC Ministry of Education published the Information and Communications Technology Integration Performance Standards, Grades 5 to 10 ICTI in 2005.^[61] These standards provide performance standards expectations for Grade 5 to 10; however, they do not provide guidance for other grades, and the expectation for a Grade 5 and Grade 10 student are the same.

Latin America

Mexico

UNESCO founded the Network for Media and Information Literacy in Mexico in August 2021. This was project aimed to introduce a pathway for academia, government/civil organizations, and other institutions to promote the spread of media and information literacy skills. The MIL Network Mexico focused on making visible the issues surrounding MIL in Mexico, such as disinformation and hate speech. This focus on visibility also promotes to aid in developing appropriate MIL skills across disenfranchised groups, teens and young adults, and key figures that amplify the spread of information like journalists and educators.

There are multiple members of the MIL Network Mexico that actively promote its mission: UNESCO MILID CHAIR UDG, DW Akademie, Instituto Mexicano de la Radio (IMER), Instituto Nacional Electoral (INE), SocialTIC, Universidad Autonóma de Nuevo León, Universidad Veracruzana, and UNESCO México.^[62]

Peru

Medios Claros conducted a pilot training in 2009. The study found that while students had an intuitive understanding of media influence, they lacked systematic concepts and methods, and there was no sustained follow-up afterward. Experts have called for integrating media and information literacy with the "Educomunicación" approach through teacher professional development to embed it into classroom practice.^[63]

Middle East and North Africa

In the Arab region, media and information literacy was largely ignored up until 2011, when the Media Studies Program at the American University of Beirut, the Open Society Foundations and the Arab-US Association for Communication Educators (AUSACE) launched a regional conference themed "New Directions: Digital and Media Literacy". The conference attracted significant attention from Arab universities and scholars, who discussed obstacles and needs to advance media literacy in the Arab region, including developing curricula in Arabic, training faculty and promoting the field.^[64]

Following up on that recommendation, the Media Studies Program at AUB and the Open Society Foundations in collaboration with the Salzburg Academy on Media and Global Change launched in 2013 the first regional initiative to develop, vitalize, and advance media literacy education in the Arab region. The Media and Digital Literacy Academy of Beirut (MDLAB) offered an annual two-week summer training program in addition to working year-round to develop media literacy curricula and programs. The academy is conducted in Arabic and English and brings pioneering international instructors and professionals to teach advanced digital and media literacy concepts to young Arab academics and graduate students from various fields. MDLAB hopes that the participating Arab academics will carry what they learned to their countries and institutions and offers free curricular material in Arabic and English, including media literacy syllabi, lectures, exercises, lesson plans, and multi-media material, to assist and encourage the integration of digital and media literacy into Arab university and school curricula.^[64]

In recognition of MDLAB's accomplishments in advancing media literacy education in the Arab region, the founder of MDLAB received the 2015 UNESCO-UNAOC International Media and Information Literacy Award.^[65]

Prior to 2013, only two Arab universities offered media literacy courses: the American University of Beirut (AUB) and the American University of Sharjah (AUS). Three years after the launch of MDLAB, over two dozen Arab universities incorporated media literacy education into their curricula, both as stand-alone courses or as modules injected into their existing media courses. Among the universities who have full-fledged media literacy courses (as of 2015) are Lebanese American University (Lebanon), Birzeit University (Palestine), University of Balamand (Lebanon), Damascus University (Syria), Rafik Hariri University (Lebanon), Notre Dame University (Lebanon), Ahram Canadian University (Egypt), American University of Beirut (Lebanon), American University of Sharjah (UAE), and Al Azm University (Lebanon). The first Arab school to adopt media literacy as part of its strategic plan is the International College (IC) in Lebanon. Efforts to introduce media literacy to the region's other universities and schools continues with the help of other international organizations, such as UNESCO, UNAOC, AREACORE, DAAD, and OSF.^[66]

East Asia and Pacific

In Singapore^[67] and Hong Kong,^[68] information literacy or information technology was listed as a formal curriculum.

Japan

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC) are two governmental ministries in Japan that are actively promoting Media and Information Literacy education. MEXT has set national curriculum guidelines surrounding use of information and communication technologies by students. MIC produces media literacy materials for formal and informal settings, as well as organized a study group to research "internet governance" for platforms and their services.^[69]

Thailand

In 2003, as UNESCO promoted Media and Information Literacy education, media literacy was incorporated into the core curriculum of primary and secondary schools and in some higher education institutions in Thailand.^[69]

The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Digital Economy and Society, Prasert Chantarawongthong, announced nine key initiatives for 2025 focused on enhancing digital literacy, bridging the digital divide, improving safety in digital interactions, and building public confidence in the digital ecosystem.^[70]

Barriers

One barrier to learning to read is the lack of books, while a barrier to learning IML is the lack of technology access. The development of media and information literacy faces multiple obstacles, including insufficient digital skills among teachers and students, lack of effective training and technical support, weak school equipment and network infrastructure, limited leadership and policy support, and disparities in students’ socioeconomic backgrounds. These factors collectively affect the effective integration and equitable implementation of technology in education.^[71]

Although a large amount of funding has been invested, the integration of technology and education still faces challenges. According to surveys and interviews, hardware is not the biggest obstacle to technology integration; the main issues lie in training, content support, incentive systems, and resource inequality. Especially for teachers, demonstration training institutions do not provide professional guidance, while the national education ministry requires teachers to have the ability to use new technologies in their work.^[72]

Public opinion remains divided on the use of mobile phones in schools. While some believe that mobile devices lead to distraction, cyberbullying, and negative mental health outcomes among students,^[73] others point to their potential educational value when integrated appropriately.

Educators are increasingly expected to use technology to diversify instruction and improve communication, yet the disruptive potential of social media in classrooms has led to growing calls for restrictions. In response, Ontario implemented a school-wide mobile phone ban in September 2024.^[74]

However, researchers caution that banning phones entirely may not resolve core issues related to digital behavior and student well-being. Studies suggest that structured integration of mobile technology—combined with instruction in digital literacy and civic responsibility—may offer more sustainable educational outcomes.^[75]

Key information literacies

Information literacies are the multiple literacies individuals may need to function effectively in the global information society.^[24] The following are key information literacies.

Critical literacy

Critical literacy is the ability to actively analyse texts and media to identify underlying messages, taking into account context, perspective and possible biases.^[76]

Computer literacy

Computer literacy is the ability to use computers and other digital devices efficiently enough to carry out basic or more advanced tasks.^[77]

Copyright literacy

Copyright literacy is the ability to manage creative output and make appropriate use of the work of others, informed by knowledge of copyright, ownership, usage and other rights.^[78]

Data literacy

Data literacy is the ability to gather, interpret and analyse data, and communicate insights and information from this analysis. Increasingly important in everyday life, over 80% of employers cite data literacy as a key skill for employees.^[79]

Digital literacy

Digital literacy is the ability to use technology to manage and interact with digitized information, participate in online practice and originate digital work.^[80]

Disaster literacy

Disaster literacy is an individual's ability to read, understand, and use information to make informed decisions and follow instructions in the context of mitigating, preparing, responding, and recovering from a disaster.^[81]

Financial literacy

Financial literacy is the capacity of an individual to understand available banking products, services, laws and obligations, and make informed decisions on financial assets.

Health literacy

Health literacy is the ability of individuals to locate, understand, manage, and make appropriate use of information to help promote and maintain good health.^[82][83]

Media literacy

Media literacy is the ability to locate, critically evaluate, communicate with and make effective use of different types of media.^[84]

Transliteracy

Transliteracy combines capabilities in information literacy, technology, creativity, communication and collaboration, critical thinking, practical skills and craft, to cross cultures, contexts, technologies and media.^[85]

Visual literacy

Visual literacy is the ability to interpret and make meaning from visual information such as static or moving images, graphics, symbols, diagrams, maps.^[86]

Web literacy

Web literacy is the ability to navigate the world wide web, interact effectively and thrive online, while managing online presence, privacy and risk.^[87]

See also

• Critical literacy
• Digital literacy
• Multiliteracy
• Numeracy
• Visual literacy
• Center for Documentation and Information