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Iranian opposition
Groups opposed to the Iranian government From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Iranian opposition are the groups that oppose the Islamic Republic of Iran government. These groups are ideologically diverse, ranging from republicanism and monarchists, socialists and Mojahedin-e-Khalq (MEK), separatists, supporters of parliamentary democracy, and some Islamists.[1][2]
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Opposition during the Pahlavi monarchy
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In the events before and after the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, many of the Shia clerics had begun to oppose the secular government in Iran. For example, Ayatollah Abol-Qasem Kashani and his followers organised a series of protests against Mohammad Mosaddegh's liberal reforms. By July 1953 when Mosaddegh asked for a critical extension of his emergency powers, "... Clerical members of the Majles who supported Kashani left the National Front Coalition and set up their own Islamic Faction...".[3] (Muslim Warriors). This faction then boycotted the 1953 referendum concerning the dissolution of parliament.[4]
In 1963, Iran had launched the White Revolution, a far-reaching series of reforms to aggressively modernize the country. This aroused the antagonism of the Ulama (Islamic clergy) led by Ruhollah Khomeini, the future leader of the 1979 Islamic Revolution, who opposed the erosion of their traditional bases of power, and met with difficulties from a high failure rate for new farms and an exodus of agricultural workers to an alienating atomized life in the Iran's major cities.[5] Eventually, the Shah exiled Khomeini in 1964; but later returned to Tehran from exile in 1979 after the Shah fled Iran.[6]
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Opposition during the Islamic Republic
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Early opposition
Following the Iranian Revolution and the end of Pahlavi Iran in 1979, opposition to the new regime soon emerged. During International Women's Day in 1979, massive anti-hijab protests broke out in Tehran over the regime's intention to introduce mandatory hijab veiling for women in public.[7]
On June 14, 1980, Ruhollah Khomeini initiated an order aimed to "purify" higher education by removing Western, liberal, and leftist elements, leading to the closure of universities, the banning of student unions, and violent occupations of campuses. Following the 1979 revolution, the MEK started to gain popularity among university students. During the Cultural Revolution in Iran, clerics imposed policies to Islamize Iranian society, including the expulsion of critical academics, the suppression of secular political groups, and the persecution of intellectuals and artists. These measures sparked large-scale protests across the country.[8][9][10]
On the final day of the elections, Massoud Rajavi met with President Abolhassan Banisadr, complaining that the IRP and its Hezbollah supporters were systematically intimidating voters, disrupting rallies, assaulting campaign workers, and setting ballot boxes on fire. The MEK then arrived at two key conclusions: first, that they had enough popular backing to serve as an opposition to the IRP; and second, that the IRP would not allow them to operate as an opposition.[11] The group began clashing with the ruling Islamic Republican Party while avoiding direct and open criticism of Khomeini.[12] The MEK was in turn suppressed by Khomeini's revolutionary organizations.[13]
In response to the widely disputed impeachment of President Banisadr, the MEK organized a large-scale protest against Khomeini on June 20, 1981, intending to topple the regime.[14] Big crowds gathered in various cities, with the Tehran protest alone attracting up to 500,000 people. Leading clerics proclaimed that demonstrators would be considered "enemies of God" and face immediate execution regardless of age. This marked the beginning of the 1981–1982 Iran Massacres led by the Islamic government.[8][15]
In the years after, the Iranian opposition continued to resist the government through various protests, including the 1992 Mashhad protests and 1999 Iranian student protests.[16]
Growing discontent
In 2009, disagreements over the results of the Iranian presidential election led to widespread protests, as protestors criticized the government of electoral fraud.[17] The protests became part of the Iranian Green Movement, part of growing opposition against the Iranian government. This was described at the time as the "biggest unrest since the 1979 revolution".[18]
During this period Iranian women played an increasingly prominent role among the Iranian opposition, as anger continue against mandatory hijabs for women.[19][20] In 2017, a video of a girl waving her hijab around on the streets of Tehran went viral online, prompting similar anti-hijab protests in the following months.[21]
In November 2018, ten Iranian opposition groups signed a joint memorandum of understanding to show unity amidst internal divisions and reconfirm their support for the "overthrow of the Islamic regime". The parties agree in their desire to create a parliamentary democracy along with the principle of separation of church and state. The signatories included: the Democratic Alliance, the Democratic and Secular Republican Movement of Iran, the Ahvaz Democratic Solidarity Party, the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan, the Kurdistan Democratic Party, the Komalah, the Balochistan People’s Party, the Union of People's Fedaian of Iran, the Provisional Council of Left Socialists of Iran, and the Komala of the Toilers of Kurdistan.[22]
On 12 June 2019, the 10-year anniversary of the 2009 Iranian presidential election, 14 opposition activists in and outside of Iran signed the Statement of 14 Political Activists. The open letter proposed a series of political and civil demands, including improvements to women's rights in Iran, greater independence between the branches of government, amendments to the Constitution of Iran, and for Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei to step down.[23][24] Other activists also signed letters with similar content in August, with several arrests made as a result.[25][26][27][28]
In October 2020, Reza Pahlavi issued a message titled "New Pact", emphasizing the rejection of the monopoly of power.[29] He called for stronger connections between acts of civil disobedience throughout the country, including protests and strikes. He also called on all pro-democracy political forces to set aside their differences and unite for the transition from the Islamic Republic.[30] Abdulla Mohtadi, Secretary General of the Komalah Party and a member of the Iran Transition Council, considered this message a positive first step, but did not consider it sufficient for unity among the opposition.[31] Mojtaba Vahedi viewed Pahlavi's message positively, and commended his opposition to individual rule. However, Vahedi criticized Pahlavi's claim about his lack of desire for political power, asserting that political power is needed to implement political activity. He further called on Pahlavi to deal with those who create discord among the Iranian opposition to avoid prolonging the Islamic republic.[32] Ammar Maleki, a professor of political science in the Netherlands, assessed this move as positive and promising, but believed that more practical action is required.[29]
In September 2022, widespread protests erupted across Iran following the death of Mahsa Amini, who was killed after her arrest for wearing the hijab "improperly".[33]
On 3 February 2023, former Prime Minister and reformist leader of the Green Revolution Mir-Hossein Mousavi called for a referendum on an end to clerical rule,[34] stating that "he no longer supports the current Islamic Republic constitution".[35] In a statement signed by over 400 political activists and journalists, Mousavi called for the creation of a constituent assembly and a new constitution, believing that "with the current social awakening, and the society’s disillusionment with reforms within the current [political] structure, there is no other way than allowing the people to decide their own destiny." [36]
Major opposition leader Reza Pahlavi embraced this initiative, as it "implicitly repeated what exiled Prince Reza Pahlavi has been saying for years, and other opposition activists have echoed in the past five months – transition from the Islamic Republic."[37] This opposition is getting "stronger and more unified than ever".[38] Iran's top Sunni cleric Abdolhamid Ismaeelzahi also supported the initiative, saying "Mousavi showed that he understood the realities of society. It’s time for other politicians and ulema to think about saving the country and see the facts."[39]
On 10 February 2023, the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) hosted a conference called the Future of Iran’s Democracy Movement, gathering major Iranian opposition groups to discuss a transition path for the creation of a secular and democratic Iran.[40][41] Attendees of the summit included 8 prominent opposition leaders: actresses Nazanin Boniadi and Golshifteh Farahani, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Shirin Ebadi, activists Masih Alinejad and Dr. Hamed Esmaeilion; former soccer captain Ali Karimi, former Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi, and Kurdish leader Abdullah Mohtadi. The creation of the group Revolutionary Council of Dadkhahan was announced shortly afterwards, with a stated goal of supporting justice and an independent judiciary, along with the overthrow of the Islamic Republic of Iran to realize democracy and human rights in Iran.[42][43][44]
In early March 2023, opposition groups published the "Charter of Solidarty and Alliance for Freedom", nicknamed the Mahsa Charter after Mahsa Amini.[45][46] This effort received some attention from the press,[47][39][48] and are seeking support from the international community.[49] Due to his position as heir to the House of Pahlavi, Pahlavi emphasizes his role "in this process of transition is to be of help to maintain a smooth process — to maximise the participation of democratic forces in this process", and that whoever Iranians then elect in a free and open referendum is up to them.[50]
On 9 March 2023, five opposition groups announced the creation of Solidarity for a Secular Democratic Republic in Iran, a political coalition to advance the goal of establishing a "secular democratic republic in Iran". The coalition was created from United Republicans of Iran, National Front of Iran—Europe, Left Party of Iran, Iran National Front – Organizations Abroad, and the Union for Secular Republic and Human Rights in Iran.[51]
Proposal for a transitional government
In concurrence with the 61st Munich Security Conference in February 2025, several Iranian opposition groups met in Munich in what was called the "Munich Convergence Summit". At the summit, a coalition of liberal and nationalist political parties selected Reza Pahlavi to lead a transitional government until the realization of democratic elections and the formation of a new government in Iran. Pahlavi is the son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Pahlavi Iran prior to the Islamic Revolution. He has stated that he personally prefers the establishment of a republic but that it is up to the Iranian people to decide.[52][53]
On 17 June 2025, Reza Pahlavi declared the Iranian regime "in the process of collapsing" as Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei went into hiding amidst the Iran-Israel War.[54] He then called on the Iranian people to "rise" and "reclaim" Iran,[55] and presented a 100-day transition blueprint in the case of regime collapse.[56][57] Two days later, Pahlavi confirmed to bipartisan members of the U.S. House of Representatives that he "does not seek power", but rather "to fulfill a duty to help lead this transition".[58] The following day, Pahlavi confirmed through social media that discussions have started regarding a post-regime transition.[59][60][61]
On 22 June, following American airstrikes on Iranian nuclear facilities, Pahlavi urged Supreme Leader Khamenei to step down.[62] In a press conference the next day, Pahlavi again offered to lead Iran's democratic transition, and outlined the three main principles guiding transition plans, namely: 1) Iran's territorial integrity; 2) individual liberties and equality; and 3) the separation of religion and state.[63][64] He again reiterated that he does not seek power, but only to "help our great nation navigate through this critical hour towards stability, freedom and justice".[64]
On 24 June 2025, the president-elect of the National Council of Resistance of Iran, Maryam Rajavi, said that an alternative government cannot be "imposed from above, as was done a century ago when Britain installed a monarchy by appointment". She added that "the solution for Iran lies neither in appeasement nor in war, but in a third option: regime change by the people of Iran and the organized resistance", stressing that the NCRI would be the best current option for change in Iran. She advocates for "a democratic, non-nuclear republic, with the separation of religion and state, gender equality and also autonomy for Iran's nationalities."[65][66][67]
On 26 July 2025, Reza Pahlavi hosted a conference of opposition activists in Munich. He claimed that at least 50,000 officials from inside Iran's government and military registered through a secure channel to coordinate the ousting of the Iranian government.[68][69]
According to an analysis from Robert Kaplan of the Center for a New American Security, Iran is distinguished from many Arab states by its natural borders, untouched by European border drawing,[70] and is a civilizational cultural sphere similar to China and Greece.[71] Kaplan believes this factor would allow Iran to "avoid the chaos that accompanied the yearnings for democracy in such an artificially drawn state as Iraq".[72] He also believes that Iran is the "Middle East's geopolitical pivot point", and with a large and educated population, the country under a "more liberal regime" will have major influence on Mesopotamia to the west and Central Asia to the east.[70] It is likely that an Iran under a liberal government would become an ally of the United States and Europe.[72][73]
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Major parties and organizations
Public opinion
Following the 2017–2018 Iranian protests, a survey from the Iranian government found that a majority of respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the current situation, and that more than 31% of respondents have lost faith in government reform entirely. Among those dissatisfied, 41% reported willingness to participate in protests if they occurred.[74]
International reactions
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United States
In 2019, the U.S. House of Representatives introduced H.R. 374 in support of the Iranian people's desire for a democratic, secular, and non-nuclear Iran while "condemning Iranian state-sponsored terrorism". It offers support for a 10-point plan proposed by leader of National Council of Resistance of Iran Maryam Rajavi, which includes universal suffrage, market economy and a non-nuclear Iran. The resolution also called for the prevention of "malign activities of the Iranian regime’s diplomatic missions" and that the U.S. "stands with the people of Iran who are continuing to hold legitimate and peaceful protests" against the Iranian government. The bill was introduced by Rep. Tom McClintock and received bipartisan support from 221 House members.[75][76] According to McClintock, "There is a reason why a strong bipartisan majority in the United States House of Representatives has come together to co-sponsor this resolution condemning Iran’s terrorist acts, it’s because the world is watching the struggle for freedom in Iran, and it is cheering for your cause". He also mentioned that Iranian citizens have "taken to the streets and the airwaves" to protest against Ayatollah Ali Khamenei’s regime, which he said has “lost any claim to legitimacy.”[77]
In 2023, McClintock introduced H.R. 100 to expressed continued support for the democracy movement in Iran since the Mahsa Amini protests. The bill received support from 222 House members, including 147 Republicans and 75 Democrats.[78] The resolution "stands with the people of Iran who are legitimately defending their rights for freedom against repression, and condemns the brutal killing of Iranian protesters by the Iranian regime" and "recognizes the rights of the Iranian people and their struggle to establish a democratic, secular, and nonnuclear Republic of Iran".[79][80]
An article from Bloomberg in January 2020 revealed that then-Secretary of State Mike Pompeo ordered American diplomats to limit contact with several Iranian opposition groups to not jeopardize relations with the Iranian government. These groups included Iran Transition Council, Arab Struggle Movement for the Liberation of Ahwaz, South Azerbaijan National Liberation Movement, Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan, Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan, and the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.[81]
Europe
Activist Masih Alinejad has criticized the German government for actively silencing exiled Iranian dissidents, mentioning the past Mykonos restaurant assassinations.[82] In 2023, the European Parliament awarded the Sakharov Prize to the Woman, Life, Freedom movement,[83] and imprisoned anti-regime journalist Narges Mohammadi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[84] The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Iran condemned the decision.[85]
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See also
Bibliography
- Axworthy, Michael (2013). Revolutionary Iran: a history of the Islamic republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-932226-8. OCLC 854910512.
- Abrahamian, Ervand (1989). Radical Islam: The Iranian Mojahedin (Society and culture in the modern Middle East). I.B. Taurus. ISBN 978-1850430834.
- Zabih, Sepehr (1988). The Iranian Military in Revolution and War (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415004763.
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References
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