Kuman language (New Guinea)

Kuman (also Chimbu or Simbu) is a language of Chimbu Province, Papua New Guinea. In 1994, it was estimated that 80,000 people spoke Kuman, 10,000 of them monolinguals;^[2] in the 2000 census, 115,000 were reported, with few monolinguals.^[1] Ethnologue also reported 70,000 second language speakers in 2021.^[1]

Kuman
Native to	Papua New Guinea
Region	Chimbu Province, from Kundiawa to beyond Kerowagi in the west and Gembogl in the north, at the foot of Mount Wilhelm
Native speakers	(120,000 cited 2000 census)[1] L2: 70,000 (2021)[1]
Language family	Trans–New Guinea Chimbu–Wahgi Chimbu Kuman
Language codes
ISO 639-3	kue
Glottolog	kuma1280

Phonology

Like other Chimbu languages, Kuman has rather unusual lateral consonants. Besides the typical /l/, it has a "laterally released velar affricate" which is voiced medially and voiceless finally (and does not occur initially).^[3] Based on related languages, this is presumably /k͡𝼄/, allophonically [ɡ͡ʟ̝] (see voiceless velar lateral fricative).

Consonants

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Plosive	voiceless	p	t		k
	prenasal/vd.	ᵐb ~ b	ⁿd ~ d		ᵑɡ ~ g
Nasal		m	n
Fricative			s
Tap			ɾ
Lateral			l		ʟ
Semivowel		w		j

• Voiced plosives are usually prenasal, but may fluctuate in word-initial position as ordinary voiced stops [b, d, ɡ].
• Voiceless stops /p, t, k/ are always aspirated [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] in word-initial position.
• /ɾ/ only occurs word-medially and word-finally. In word-final position it is heard as a trill [r].
• /s/ can be pronounced as [s], [ᵗs] in word-initial position.
• /w/ can be pronounced as [β] before front vowels /i, e/.
• /ʟ/ is heard as voiceless [ʟ̥] or fricative [𝼄], when preceding a consonant. It is heard as a voiced fricative [ʟ̝] when between vowels. It is also heard as an alveolar fricative [ɬ] before an /s/.^[4][5]

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Mid	e		o
Low		a

• /a/ can be heard as either central [ä] or back [ɑ] in free variation.
• /e/ is pronounced as [ɛ] as a first vowel in a word.
• /o/ is pronounced in its lax form as [ɔ] before /ɾ/.

Syllable patterns

Syllable structure is (C)V(C). Any consonant can occur in onset position, but in coda position only /m/, /n/, /gɬ/, /l/ and /k/ can occur.^[6]

Grammar

Kuman is an SOV language.

Vocabulary

The following basic vocabulary words are from Salisbury (1956)^[7] and Trefry (1969),^[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:^[8]

gloss	Kuman
head	bit-na; bɩtiɩno
hair	iŋguno; yungo
ear	kina-na; kunano
eye	gumutino; ongomit-na
nose	guma-ne; gumano
tooth	siŋguno
tongue	dirambino
leg	kati; kat-na
louse	numan
dog	aʝg; agi; akɬ ̥
pig	bogla; bugɬa
bird	kua
egg	mugɬo; muɬo
blood	borɔmai; bořumai; maiam
bone	yambiřo; yombura
skin	gaŋgino
breast	amu-na; amuno
tree	endi
man	yagl; yakɬ ̥
woman	ambu
sun	ande; andesuŋgua
moon	ba
water	nigl; nikɬ ̥
fire	baugl; doŋga
stone	kombuglo; kombugɬo
road, path	konbo; konumbo
name	kaŋgin; kangi-ne
eat	neuŋgua
one	suařa
two	suo