List of cardinal-nephews

A cardinal-nephew is a cardinal elevated by a pope who was his uncle, or more generally, his relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages, and reached its apex during the 16th and 17th centuries.^[1] From the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) until Pope Innocent XII's anti-nepotism bull, Romanum decet pontificem (1692), nearly every pope who appointed cardinals appointed at least one relative to the College of Cardinals,^{[n 1]} including every Renaissance-era pope.^[2]

Ippolito de' Medici, a cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement VII and illegitimate son of Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici

Although nephews were the most common relation to be elevated to the College, other family members included sons and grandsons (whether legitimate, illegitimate, or adopted), brothers, grandnephews, cousins and even uncles.^[1][2] At least 15, and possibly as many as 19 cardinal-nephews were later elected pope (Gregory IX, Alexander IV, Adrian V, Gregory XI, Boniface IX, Innocent VII, Eugene IV, Paul II, Alexander VI, Pius III, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Benedict XIII, and Pius VII, perhaps also John XIX, Benedict IX, if they were really promoted cardinals, as well as Innocent III and Benedict XII, if in fact they were related to their elevators). One became antipope (John XXIII), and two or three were canonized (Charles Borromeo, Guarinus of Palestrina, and perhaps Anselm of Lucca, if in fact he was really elected cardinal).^{[n 2]}

Similarly created cardinals include cardinal-nephews of antipopes and papal relatives made cardinals by other popes.

Notes on symbols

Because statements concerning the familial ties of popes and cardinals prior to the 14th century are often of much later origin, some sources regard their factual accuracy as dubious. Thus, individuals are marked with:

• , when the existence of the familial relationship is disputed, or
• , when their promotion to the cardinalate is disputed.

Occupants of the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew are denoted with †.

11th century

Pope Benedict VIII elevated his cousin, brother, and nephew to the cardinalate.

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Benedict VIII (1012–1024)	Lotario (or Loctarius), seniore	circa 1015	Cousin	[5][6]
	Giovanni	, Unknown	Brother	Future Pope John XIX[5][7]
	Teofilatto	, Unknown	Nephew[n 3]	Future Pope Benedict IX[5][8]
John XIX (1024–1032)	Pietro	1024[9]	Cousin	[5][10]
Benedict IX (1032–1044, 1045, 1047–1048)	Giovanni	before April 1044	Nephew	[11]
Alexander II (1061–1073)	St. Anselm of Lucca	Circa 1062	Brother or nephew	[5][n 4]
Urban II (1088–1099)	Odon de Châtillon	Circa 1095	Nephew	[5][n 5]

12th century

Pope John XIX, the first cardinal-nephew elected pope

Pope Innocent III created an unprecedented four cardinal-nephews.

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Callixtus II (1119–1124)	Etienne de Bar	1120	Nephew	[15][n 6]
Innocent II (1130–1143)	Gregorio Papareschi	1134/1137	Nephew	[15][n 7]
	Pietro Papareschi	17 September 1143	Brother	[15][n 8]
Lucius II (1144–1145)	Ubaldo	19 May 1144	Cousin or nephew	[15][n 9]
	St. Guarinus of Palestrina	22 December 1144	Relative	[21][n 10]
Adrian IV (1154–1159)	Boso Breakspeare	21 December 1156	Nephew	[24][25]
Lucius III (1181–1185)	Uberto Allucingoli	Circa 1182	Nephew	[15][n 11]
	Gerardo	18 December 1182	Nephew	[n 12]
Clement III (1187–1191)	Lotario de' Conti	22 September 1190	Unknown	Future Pope Innocent III[30][n 13]
	Niccolò Scolari		Nephew	[34][n 14]
Celestine III (1191–1198)	Bobo	20 February 1193	Relative	[37][38]
	Giovanni di San Paolo		Nephew	[37][n 15]
Innocent III (1198–1216)	Ugolino dei Conti di Segni	19 December 1198	Cousin	Future Pope Gregory IX[40]
	Giovanni dei Conti di Segni	3 June 1200[41]	Cousin	[40]
	Ottaviano dei Conti di Segni	27 May 1206[41]	Cousin	[40]
	Stefano Conti	5 March 1216[41]	Unknown	[42]

13th century

Pope Alexander IV, a cardinal-nephew of Gregory IX, himself a cardinal-nephew of Innocent III, who was a cardinal-nephew of Clement III

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Gregory IX (1227–1241)	Rinaldo Conti	18 September 1227	Unknown	Future Pope Alexander IV[40][43][n 16]
	Niccolò dei Conti di Segni	December 1228	Nephew	[46][n 17]
	Riccardo Annibaldeschi di Molaria	1238	Unknown	[48]
Innocent IV (1243–1254)	Guglielmo Fieschi	28 May 1244	Nephew	[40][43]
	Ottobono Fieschi	December 1251	Nephew	Future Pope Adrian V[40][43]
Urban IV (1261–1264)	Anchero Pantaleone	22 May 1262	Nephew	[40]
Gregory X (1271–1276)	Vicedomino de Vicedominis	3 June 1273	Unknown	It is a widely disseminated misconception that he was elected but died before proclamation.[40][49]
	Giovanni Visconti	1275	Unknown	[50][n 18]
Nicholas III (1277–1280)	Latino Malabranca Orsini	12 March 1278	Nephew	[40]
	Giordano Orsini		Brother	[40][52]
Honorius IV (1285–1287)	Giovanni Boccamazza	22 December 1285	Relative	[40]
Nicholas IV (1288–1292)	Pietro Colonna	16 May 1288	Relative	[53][n 19]
Boniface VIII (1294–1303)	Benedetto II Caetani	between 23 January and 13 May 1295	Nephew	[40][57]
	Giacomo Tomasi Caetani (Iacopo Tommasi)	17 December 1295	Unknown	[40][57]
	Francesco Caetani		Unknown	[40][57]
	Leonardo Patrasso	2 March 1300	Uncle	[40]

14th century

The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) produced an unprecedented number of cardinal-nephews.

Pope Clement V, the first Avignon Pope, created an unprecedented four or five cardinal-nephews on the same day.

Pope Clement VI created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff.

Jean de Murat de Cros

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Clement V (1305–1314)	Berengar Fredol the Elder	15 December 1305	Nephew, son of Guillaume de Frédol	[58][59]
	Arnaud Frangier de Chanteloup		Close relative, possible nephew	[58]
	Arnaud de Pellegrue		Relative, possible nephew	[58]
	Raymond de Got		Nephew, son of Arnaud Garcie de Got	[58]
	Guillaume Arrufat		Relative, possible nephew	[58]
	Raymond Guillaume des Forges	19 December 1310	Nephew, son of Marquise de Got	[58]
	Bernard Jarre (or Garve)		Relative	[58]
	Arnaud d'Aux	23 December 1312	Relative	[60]
	Berengar Fredol the Younger		Grandnephew	[58][61]
John XXII (1316–1334)	Jacques de Via	17 December (or 18), 1316	Nephew, son of Marie Duese	[58]
	Gauscelin Jean d'Euse		Relative[62]	[58]
	Bertrand du Pouget		Relative, possible nephew	[58][63]
	Arnaud de Via	20 June 1317	Nephew, son of Marie Duese	[58]
	Raymond Le Roux	19 December (or 20), 1320	Close relative, possible nephew	[58][64]
	Jacques Fournier	18 December 1327	Unknown relative	Future Pope Benedict XII)[65]
	Imbert Dupuis		Relative, possible nephew	[58][66]
Benedict XII (1334–1342)	Guillaume Court	18 December 1338	Relative, mother's side	[58][67]
Clement VI (1342–1352)
	Aymeric de Chalus	20 September 1342	Cousin	[68]
	Hugues Roger [fr; it; no; pl]		Brother	[58][69]
	Adhémar Robert		Cousin or nephew	[58]
	Gérard Lagarde (or Domar)		Cousin	[58]
	Bernard de la Tour		Nephew	[58]
	Guillaume de la Jugié (Guillaume II Roger)		Nephew, son of Guillaumette Rogier	[58][69]
	Nicolas de Besse	19 May 1344	Nephew, son of Dauphine Roger	[70]
	Pierre-Roger de Beaufort	28 May (or 29), 1348	Nephew	Future Pope Gregory XI[58][69][71]
	Raymond de Canillac	17 December 1350	Nephew	[58]
	Guillaume d'Aigrefeuille, seniore		Cousin	[72]
	Pierre du Cros		Nephew or cousin	[58]
Innocent VI (1352–1362)	Andouin Aubert	15 February 1353	Nephew, son of Guy Aubert	[58]
	Pierre de Salvete Monteruc	23 December 1356	Nephew of mother's side	[58]
	Etienne Aubert, iuniore	17 September 1361	Grandnephew	[58]
Urban V (1362–1370)	Angelic de Grimoard	18 September 1366	Brother	[58]
	Pierre d'Estaing	7 June 1370	Relative	[73]
Gregory XI (1370–1378)	Jean de Murat de Cros	30 May 1371	Nephew or cousin	[58]
	Jean de la Tour		Brother-in-law of niece	[74]
	Pierre de la Jugié (or Jugée)	20 December 1375	Cousin	[58]
	Gui de Maillesec		Nephew on mother's side	[75]
	Gérard du Puy		Cousin or nephew	[58]
Urban VI (1378–1389)	Francesco Moricotti Prignani	18 September 1378	Nephew	[76]
	Filippo Carafa della Serra	18 September 1378	Relative	[77]
	Francesco Renzio	21 December 1381	Distant relative	[77][78]
	Pietro Tomacelli		Distant relative	Future Pope Boniface IX[77][78]
	Tommaso Orsini	ca.1383	Relative	[77]
	Rinaldo Brancaccio	17 December 1384	Relative	[77]
	Marino Bulcani		Distant relative, nephew of cardinal Francesco Renzio	[77][79]
Boniface IX (1389–1404)	Enrico Minutoli	18 December 1389	Distant relative	[80]
	Cosimo Migliorati		Distant relative	Future Pope Innocent VII (1404–1406)[80]
	Baldassare Cossa	27 February 1402	Relative	Future Antipope John XXIII[80][81]

15th century

Paul II, cardinal-nephew of Eugene IV, who was cardinal-nephew of Gregory XII

Pope Pius II names his nephew Francesco Piccolomini (future Pope Pius III) cardinal.

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Innocent VII (1404–1406)	Giovanni Migliorati	12 June 1405	Nephew	[82]
Gregory XII (1406–1415)	Antonio Correr	9 May 1408	Nephew, son of Filippo Correr	[82]
	Gabriele Condulmer		Nephew, son of Beriola Correr	Future Pope Eugene IV[83]
	Angelo Barbarigo	19 September 1408	Nephew, son of Caterina Correr	[83]
Martin V (1417–1431)	Prospero Colonna	24 May 1426 published 8 November 1430	Nephew, son of Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna	[82]
Eugene IV (1431–1447)	Francesco Condulmer	19 September 1431	Nephew	[83]
	Pietro Barbo	1 July 1440	Nephew, son of Polissena Condulmer	Future Pope Paul II[83]
Nicholas V (1447–1455)	Filippo Calandrini	20 December 1448	Half-brother	[82]
Callixtus III (1455–1458)	Luis Juan del Mila y Borja	20 February 1456 published 17 September 1456	Nephew	[82]
	Rodrigo Borja		Nephew	Future Pope Alexander VI[82]
Pius II (1458–1464)	Francesco Piccolomini	5 March 1460	Nephew	Future Pope Pius III[82]
	Niccolò Fortiguerra		Relative on mother's side	[82]
	Giacomo Ammannati-Piccolomini	18 December 1461	Adopted	[82]
Paul II (1464–1471)	Marco Barbo	18 September 1467	Unknown	[82]
	Giovanni Battista Zeno	21 November 1468	Unknown	[82]
	Giovanni Michiel		Unknown	[82]
Sixtus IV (1471–1484)	Pietro Riario	16 December 1471	Unknown	[82]
	Giuliano della Rovere		Unknown	Future Pope Julius II[82]
	Girolamo Basso della Rovere	10 December 1477	Unknown	[82]
	Raffaele Riario		Unknown	[82]
	Cristoforo della Rovere		Unknown	[82]
	Domenico della Rovere	10 February 1478	Unknown	[82]
Innocent VIII (1484–1492)	Lorenzo Cybo de Mari	9 March 1489	Unknown	[82]
	Giovanni de' Medici		Relative	Future Pope Leo X[84]
	Pantaleone Cybo	9 March 1489 Never published	Nephew	[85]
	Niccolò Cybo		Nephew	[85]
Alexander VI (1492–1503)	Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor	31 August 1492	Son of cousin	[82]
	Cesare Borgia	20 September 1493	Son	Resigned 18 August 1498[86]
	Giuliano Cesarini, iuniore		Brother-in-law of daughter, Gerolama Borgia	[87]
	Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el menor	19 February 1496	Grandnephew	[82]
	Amanieu d'Albret	20 March 1500	Brother-in-law of Cesare Borgia	[88]
	Pedro Luis de Borja Lanzol de Romaní		Grandnephew	[82]
	Francisco de Borja	28 September 1500	Disputed relationship	[89]
	Juan de Vera		Relative	[89]
	Juan Castellar y de Borja	31 May 1503	Cousin of Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor	[90]
	Francisco Lloris y de Borja		Grandnephew	[90]

16th century

Pope Leo X with his cousins Giulio de' Medici (left, future Pope Clement VII) and Luigi de' Rossi (right), whom he appointed as cardinals

Giovanni Salviati

Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (left) and his other grandson (right), Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma

Ranuccio Farnese was made cardinal by Paul III at the age of 15.

Charles Borromeo, one of the few canonized cardinal-nephews

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Julius II (1503–1513)	Clemente Grosso della Rovere	29 November 1503	Unknown	[91]
	Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere		Unknown	[91]
	Marco Vigerio della Rovere	1 December 1505	Distant relative	[91]
	Leonardo Grosso della Rovere		Cousin	[91]
	Sisto Gara della Rovere	11 September 1507	Unknown	[91]
Leo X (1513–1521)	Giulio de' Medici	23 September 1513	Cousin	Future Pope Clement VII[86]
	Innocenzo Cybo		Unknown	[91]
	Luigi de' Rossi	1 July 1517	Cousin	[92]
	Francesco Armellini Pantalassi de' Medici		Adopted as son	[92]
	Franciotto Orsini		Son of Orso Orsini di Monteredondo	[92]
	Giovanni Salviati		Son of Lucrezia de' Medici	[92]
	Niccolò Ridolfi		Son of Contessina de' Medici	[92]
Clement VII (1523–1534)	Niccolò Gaddi	3 May 1527	Related through Catherine de' Medici	[93]
	Ippolito de' Medici	10 January 1529	Illegitimate son of Giuliano de' Medici	[94]
Paul III (1534–1549)	Alessandro Farnese	18 December 1534	Grandson	[86][91]
	Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora		Grandson	[91]
	Niccolò Caetani	22 December 1536 published 13 March 1538	Son of cousin	[91]
	Tiberio Crispo	19 December 1544	Brother, on his mother's side, of pope's daughter Costanza Farnese, possibly natural son of Paul III	[95]
	Ranuccio Farnese	16 December 1545	Grandson	[91]
	Giulio Feltre della Rovere	27 July 1547	Relative	[96]
Julius III (1550–1555)	Innocenzo Ciocchi Del Monte	30 May 1550	Adopted	[91]
	Cristoforo Guidalotti Ciocchi del Monte	20 November 1551	Cousin	[91]
	Fulvio della Corgna		Nephew on his mother's side	[97]
	Roberto de Nobili	22 December 1553	Grandnephew	[91]
	Girolamo Simoncelli		Grandnephew	[91]
Paul IV (1555–1559)	Carlo Carafa	7 June 1555	Unknown	[98]
	Diomede Carafa	20 December 1555	Relative	[91]
	Alfonso Carafa	15 March 1557	Grandnephew	[99]
Pius IV (1559–1565)	Giovanni Antonio Serbelloni	31 January 1560	Cousin of Charles Borromeo	[100]
	St. Charles Borromeo		Nephew	[91][101]
	Mark Sittich von Hohenems (or Marco Sittico d'Altemps	26 February 1561	Nephew	[91][102]
	Alfonso Gesualdo		Brother-in-law of Charles Borromeo	[103]
	Gianfrancesco Gàmbara		Stepbrother of Charles Borromeo	[103]
	Francesco Alciati	12 March 1565	Relative	[104]
	Guido Luca Ferrero		Cousin of Charles Borromeo	[104]
	Gianfrancesco Commendone		Relative	[104]
Pius V (1566–1572)	Michele Bonelli†	6 March 1566	Grandnephew	[105]
	Girolamo Rusticucci	17 May 1570	Relative	[106]
Gregory XIII (1572–1585)	Filippo Boncompagni†	2 June 1572	Unknown	[107]
	Filippo Guastavillani	5 July 1574	Unknown	[91]
	Francesco Sforza di Santa Fiora	12 December 1583	Relative through his sister Costanza, wife of pope's son	[108]
Sixtus V (1585–1590)	Alessandro Peretti di Montalto†	13 May 1585	Unknown	[91][109]
Gregory XIV (1590–1591)	Paolo Emilio Sfondrati†	19 December 1590	Unknown	[110]
	Flaminio Piatti	6 March 1591	Relative	[111]
Innocent IX (1591)	Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce†	18 December 1591	Grandnephew	[91]
Clement VIII (1592–1605)	Pietro Aldobrandini†	17 September 1593	Nephew	[112][113]
	Cinzio Passeri Aldobrandini†		Nephew	[114]
	Silvestro Aldobrandini	17 September 1603	Grandnephew	[91]
	Giovanni Battista Deti	3 March 1599	Relative	[115]
	Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini		Adopted while already a cardinal on 3 April 1601	[115]

17th century

The tomb of Pope Gregory XV and his cardinal-nephew Ludovico Ludovisi

Camillo Astalli-Pamphili, painted by Velasquez

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Paul V (1605–1621)	Scipione Borghese Caffarelli†	18 July 1605	Nephew	[116]
	Giambattista Leni	24 November 1608	Distant relative	[117]
	Tiberio Muti	2 December 1615	Unknown	[118]
Gregory XV (1621–1623)	Ludovico Ludovisi†	15 February 1621	Nephew	[116]
	Marcantonio Gozzadini	21 July 1621	Cousin	[116]
Urban VIII (1623–1644)	Francesco Barberini†	2 October 1623	Nephew	[116]
	Lorenzo Magalotti	7 October 1624	Brother-in-law of Brother	[116]
	Antonio Marcello Barberini		Brother	[116]
	Antonio Barberini	30 August 1627	Nephew	[116]
	Francesco Maria Macchiavelli	6 December 1641	Relative	[119]
Innocent X (1644–1655)	Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili†	14 November 1644	Son of Innocent X's sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini	Resigned 21 January 1647[116]
	Francesco Maidalchini†	7 October 1647	Nephew of Olimpia Maidalchini	[120]
	Camillo Astalli†	19 September 1650	Cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini	Deprived of the title of nipote in February 1654[121]
Alexander VII (1655–1667)	Flavio Chigi†	9 April 1657	Nephew	[116]
	Antonio Bichi		Unknown	[122]
Clement IX (1667–1669)	Giacomo Rospigliosi†	12 December 1667	Nephew	[116]
Clement X (1670–1676)	Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni†	24 January 1664 (by Pope Alexander VII)	Adopted while already a cardinal	[123][124][125]
	Vincenzo Maria Orsini	22 February 1672	Relative	Future Pope Benedict XIII[126]
Innocent XI (1676–1689)	Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri	2 September 1686	Distant relative	[127]
Alexander VIII (1689–1691)	Pietro Ottoboni†	7 November 1689	Grandnephew	[128]
	Giovanni Battista Rubini	13 February 1690	Unknown	[116]

18th century

Romualdo Braschi-Onesti

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Clement XI (1700–1721)	Annibale Albani	23 December 1711	Unknown	[129]
	Fabio Olivieri	6 May 1715	Cousin	[130]
Innocent XIII (1721–1724)	Bernardo Maria Conti	16 June 1721	Brother	[131]
Clement XII (1730–1740)	Neri Maria Corsini	14 August 1730	Nephew	[132]
	Giovanni Antonio Guadagni	24 September 1731	Nephew on mother's side, son of Maddalena Corsini	[133]
Clement XIII (1758–1769)	Carlo Rezzonico	11 September 1758	Nephew[134]	[135]
Pius VI (1775–1799)	Giovanni Carlo Bandi	29 May 1775	Uncle	[132]
	Barnaba Chiaramonti	14 February 1785	Relative on his mother's side	Future Pope Pius VII[136]
	Romualdo Braschi-Onesti	18 December 1786	Nephew	[137]

19th century

Giuseppe Pecci

Elevating pope	Cardinal-nephew	Date of elevation	Relationship	Notes
Leo XIII (1878–1903)	Giuseppe Pecci	12 May 1879	Brother	[138]

Footnotes

1. Until Pope Innocent XII, the only exceptions were popes who did not appoint the cardinals at all (Pope Pius III, Pope Marcellus II, Pope Urban VII, Pope Leo XI) and Pope Adrian VI (who appointed only one cardinal).
2. Miranda, citing older authors such as Alphonsus Ciacconius, says that Pope Anastasius IV (Corrado della Suburra) was probably a nephew of his elevator Honorius II;^[3] however, modern scholars are in agreement that Corrado was created by Paschalis II, and deny or do not mention his relationship with Honorius II.^[4]
3. Nephew to both Benedict VIII and John XIX
4. Several modern sources do not mention his cardinalate.^[12]
5. The source for the statement that Odon was nephew of Urban II is Ferdinando Ughelli (1594–1670), considered reliable by Klewitz because he was able to verify Ughelli's other statements concerning that cardinal.^[13] Date of his promotion is given according to Hüls, who does not mention this relationship.^[14]
6. Etienne de Bar, who was nephew of Callixtus II and bishop of Metz 1120–1163, is commonly identified with cardinal Stephanus of S. Maria Cosmedin, who appears in the papal bulls between 1120–1128, but Ganzer considers it erroneous that de Bar was a cardinal.^[16] Hüls also reject this identification and adds that cardinal Stephanus of S. Maria in Cosmedin was probably brother of cardinal Giovanni of Crema.^[17]
7. Brixius and Zenker say nothing of his origins, including any relationship to Innocent II^[18]
8. His relationship with Innocent II is not attested in the contemporary sources and nothing is known about his life except his first name (Petrus) and cardinalatial title (bishop of Albano).^[19]
9. Others deny his relationship with Lucius II.^[20]
10. There is a consensus that he was related to Lucius II,^[22] with the exception of Maleczek, who says that this is not attested in the contemporary sources.^[23]
11. Several sources doubt his promotion to the cardinalate indicating that he is confused with Cardinal Uberto Crivelli, future Pope Urban III, since they both are listed as cardinals of the title of S. Lorenzo in Damaso at the same time (1182–1185).^[26] Cardella^[27] affirms his cardinalate, but raises the possibility of confusion with Uberto Crivelli.
12. Both Maleczek^[28] and Miranda^[29] say that although many sources consider him a kinsman of Lucius III, this relationship is not proven.
13. The tradition of identifying Innocent III as nephew of Clement III may result from an onomastic confusion.^[31][32] Maleczek does not mention a relationship.^[33]
14. In older historiography, he is listed as Niccolò Boboni, nephew of Celestine III, created by this pope in 1191,^[35][36] but Kartusch and Maleczek cite two contemporary documents in which pope Celestine III explicitly calls him nephew of his predecessor Clement III.
15. Maleczek says that the theory that Giovanni di San Paolo was nephew of Celestine III is based on the very uncertain identification of the future cardinal with a papal subdeacon who served as legate in France ca. 1191 and is attested as nephew of Celestine III; therefore, the status of Giovanni di San Paolo as cardinal-nephew remains uncertain.^[39]
16. More recent genealogical research has cast the doubts on the tradition identifying him as nephew of Gregory IX.^[44] Maleczek indicates that he was "probably" a relative of Gregory IX.^[45]
17. Miranda adds that his promotion to the cardinalate is disputed. Paravicini Bagliani says that he was never promoted to the cardinalate.^[47]
18. Miranda adds that his promotion is dubious. Eubel explicitly denies that he was ever a cardinal.^[51]
19. Gihon^[54] and Miranda^[55][56] do not mention this relationship.