Lushuihu

The Lushuihu (simplified Chinese: 卢水胡; traditional Chinese: 盧水胡; pinyin: Lúshuǐhú; Wade–Giles: Lu-shui-hu; lit. 'Lu River Barbarians') were an ethnic group that lived in ancient China. They are known for founding the Northern Liang dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, and for their role in Gai Wu's rebellion against the Northern Wei dynasty that led to the first of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. While classified as a branch of the "Xiongnu" in more recent historiographies, early records treat the Lushuihu as a distinct group, and their exact origin is still debated by scholars today.

Origins and theories

The word "Hu" (胡) is often translated to English as "barbarian" and was a term used in ancient times to refer to non-Han Chinese people living north or west of the Central Plains, and the Lushuihu resided in an area known as the "Lushui" (盧水) or "Lu River". Due to the wide distribution of the Lushuihu population, there are three locations generally believed to be where the Lu River flowed; Huangzhong in Qinghai, Zhangye in Gansu, or the ancient commanderies of Anding and Beidi in Ningxia.^[1]

Modern Chinese scholars have come up with several theories regarding the Lushuihu. Chen Yinke believed that "Lushuihu" was simply a generic term for hu ethnic groups living in northwestern China such as the Hexi Corridor.^[2] Zhou Yiliang suggested that the Lushuihu were specifically descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi, as after the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu empire in the 2nd-century BC, the Lesser Yuezhi branch moved to the areas of Xiping (西平; around present-day Xining, Qinghai) and Zhangye where they intermingled with the Qiang people.^[3] While Tang Changru agreed with Zhou's theory, he pointed out that the ancestors of the Lushuihu were once a part of the Xiongnu empire, and that it would not be wrong to broadly refer to them as a Xiongnu branch based on the customs of the time.^[4]

History

Han dynasty to Sixteen Kingdoms

The first record of the Lushuihu was around 57 BC, when they were recorded attacking the Shaohe Qiang people near modern-day Huangzhong, Qinghai. By 30 AD, they were already vassals of the Han dynasty as evidenced by bamboo inscriptions found in Gansu, likely around the time when the Han official, Dou Rong was governing the Hexi Corridor.^[1] They served as auxiliaries for his son, Dou Gu in his campaign against the Northern Xiongnu in 73 AD.

While a subject of the Chinese court, the Lushuihu were also known to occasionally rebel. In 77 AD, they joined the Qiang leader, Miwu in rebellion, and rebelled again in 86. The Lushuihu later came under the rule of the Cao Wei dynasty, and in 222, led by their leaders Zhiyuanduo and Yijiianjiqie, they rebelled in the Hexi Corridor but were defeated by Wei forces. After the Wei was succeeded by the Western Jin dynasty, the Lushuihu colluded with the Xiongnu chief, Hao Duyuan and the Malan Qiang people to rebel in 296, which escalated into Qi Wannian's rebellion and devastated the Guanzhong region.

Apart from the imperial family of the Northern Liang, there were several recorded Lushuihu leaders during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Specifically, these Lushuihu people were from the Peng clan of Anding Commandery and the Hao clan of Xingcheng (in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi).

Northern Liang and Gaochang (397–460)

Figure of Maitreya Buddha in cave 275 of the Mogao Caves, built and decorated under the Northern Liang dynasty.

The Juqu clan was a Lushuihu family from Linsong Commandery in modern-day Zhangye, Gansu. Their ancestors once served under the Xiongnu empire holding the title of "Juqu" of the Left (左) of Xiongnu, and so they adopted it as their family name.^[5] The Juqu then submitted to the Han dynasty, and centuries later, they entered the service of the Di-led Later Liang dynasty. In 397, after the Liang's disastrous campaign against the Western Qin dynasty, two of their members were falsely accused and executed. The cousins, Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Nancheng, rebelled in response, and they backed the Administrator of Jiankang, Duan Ye, who was Han Chinese, as their leader. While Duan Ye is recognized as the first ruler of the Northern Liang dynasty, the Juqu held considerable power over his reign. In 401, Juqu Mengxun seized the throne after killing Juqu Nancheng and Duan Ye, and the Juqu ruled Northern Liang for the majority of its existence.

The Northern Liang gained full control over the Hexi Corridor after destroying their rival Western Liang in 421. However, as the Northern Wei dynasty encroached on their borders, they submitted as vassals to the Wei and their southern counterpart, the Liu Song dynasty. The Juqu had access to trade with the Western Regions, and they engaged in a cultural exchange with the Song by trading literature. They were ultimately conquered by Wei in 439, but remnants of the Juqu continued to resist before fleeing and occupying the oasis city of Gaochang in 442, where they remained until their destruction to the Rouran Khaganate in 460.

The Juqu had a strong interest in Buddhism, with Juqu Mengxun appointing a monk, Dharmakṣema, as a trusted political advisor and translator of Buddhist literature. It was under them that the first Buddhist cave shrines began appearing in Gansu, the most famous of them being Tiantishan in Wuwei and Wenshushan in Zhangye. The earliest decorated Mogao Caves, caves (268, 272 and 275), were also built and decorated by the Northern Liang between 419 and 439.^[6][7]

Gai Wu's Rebellion and decline

The last ruler of Northern Liang, Juqu Mujian and 30,000 of his subjects were relocated near the Northern Wei capital, Pingcheng. In the years following the Liang's demise, a series of Lushuihu rebellions broke out in Wei. In 444, Mujian's brother, Juqu Bing plotted a rebellion but was discovered and executed. In 445, a Lushuihu from Xingcheng, Hao Wen revolted and was defeated, but later that year, another Xingcheng Lushuihu, Gai Wu staged an even larger rebellion. With support from the various hu people, Gai Wu's followers reached 100,000 and spread throughout the Guanzhong, lasting until late 446. Buddhist monks in Chang'an were accused of conspiring with Gai Wu, which led to their execution in the first of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. Shortly after Gai Wu's defeat in 446, a Lushuihu from Anding, Liu Chao also rebelled but was quickly suppressed.^[8]

In 447, the Wei had many members of the Juqu clan, including Juqu Mujian put to death, and by 460, the Juqu in Wei and Gaochang were wiped out. During the reign of Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei (452–465), more than 800 tribes of the Lushuihu in Xingcheng submitted to Wei. However, during the reign of Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei (465–471), a rebellion broke out in Xingcheng led by Gai Pingding that was eventually put down. From then on, the Lushuihu ceased to be mentioned in history, as they presumably assimilated into the rest of Chinese society.