Manon Lescaut

This article is about the novel by Prévost. For other uses, see Manon Lescaut (disambiguation).

The Story of the Chevalier des Grieux and Manon Lescaut (French: Histoire du Chevalier des Grieux, et de Manon Lescaut [istwaʁ dy ʃ(ə)valje de ɡʁijø e d(ə) manɔ̃ lɛsko]) is a novel by Antoine François Prévost. It tells a tragic love story about a nobleman (known only as the Chevalier des Grieux) and a common woman (Manon Lescaut). Their decision to live together without marriage is the start of a moral decline that also leads to gambling, fraud, theft, murder, and Manon's death as a deportee in New Orleans. The novel is regarded as a classic, and is the most reprinted novel in French literature, with over 250 editions.^[1]

The Story of the Chevalier des Grieux and Manon Lescaut

Title page of the standalone 1753 edition
Author	Antoine François Prévost
Original title	Histoire du Chevalier des Grieux, et de Manon Lescaut
Language	French
Genre	Novel
Publication date	1731
Publication place	France
Media type	Print
Original text	Histoire du Chevalier des Grieux, et de Manon Lescaut at French Wikisource
Translation	The Story of the Chevalier des Grieux and Manon Lescaut at Wikisource

The story was first published in 1731 as the final volume of Prévost's serial novel Memoirs and Adventures of a Man of Quality (French: Mémoires et aventures d'un homme de qualité). In 1733, all copies for sale in Paris were seized due to the volume's morally questionable content. This effective ban contributed to an increase in popularity, prompting unauthorized reprints. In 1753, Prévost published Manon Lescaut as a revised standalone book, which is now the most commonly reprinted version.

The novel was unusual for depicting Paris's "low life" and for discussing the lovers' money problems in numerical detail: both choices contribute to its realism and its aura of scandal. Over the centuries, audiences have judged Manon differently. Eighteenth-century audiences saw her as an unworthy figure who inspired pity due to the sincerity of her love. Nineteenth-century responses saw her as a nearly mythological sex symbol, either a femme fatale who corrupts des Grieux or a hooker with a heart of gold. Today, scholars tend to see Manon as a victim of broader social forces, who is misrepresented by des Grieux's narration of her experience.

Manon Lescaut has had dozens of adaptations into plays, ballets, operas, and films. The most renowned stage adaptations are three operas: Daniel Auber's Manon Lescaut (1856), Jules Massenet's Manon (1884), and Giacomo Puccini's Manon Lescaut (1893). Manon Lescaut also heavily inspired Giuseppe Verdi's opera La traviata (1853), through its influence on the play and novel La Dame aux Camélias by Alexandre Dumas fils. Notable film adaptations include the Hollywood silent film When a Man Loves (1927) and Manon 70 (1968), starring Catherine Deneuve as Manon.

Plot summary

Manon and des Grieux's first meeting, illustrated in the 1753 edition.^{[note 1]}

The seventeen-year-old Chevalier des Grieux, a seminary student and the younger son of a noble family, falls in love at first sight with Manon, a common woman on her way to a convent. They immediately run away together, and spend their meagre savings living pleasurably in Paris. Manon has sex with a Monsieur de B——^{[note 2]} for money; des Grieux forgives her. M. de B—— alerts des Grieux's family to his location, and des Grieux is forcibly brought home and confined to his room. Eventually, he enters St. Sulpice seminary with his friend Tiberge and spends a year as a successful student.

Manon reappears, and des Grieux abandons his plans to become a priest. Using wealth that Manon stole from Monsieur de B——, they move to Chaillot. Their house burns down, and des Grieux begins to cheat gamblers for money. Their servants rob them, and Manon agrees to become the mistress of a Monsieur G—— M——. After accepting substantial gifts, she leaves his house while he awaits her in his bedroom. He has Manon and Des Grieux arrested. Des Grieux is sent to St. Lazare (a religious institution for genteel moral correction), and Manon to La Salpêtrière (a harsh prison for "fallen women"). Des Grieux breaks out of his confinement, accidentally killing a porter during his escape, then bribes guards to smuggle Manon out of hers.

Manon Lescaut and Her Lover, Des Grieux, Are Set Ashore in Louisiana (1896), by Albert Lynch

They return to Chaillot. Des Grieux borrows money from Tiberge. Manon rejects the advances of an Italian prince. They meet a young G—— M——, son of the G—— M—— whom they had earlier deceived, and decide to defraud him the same way. Manon receives his money and jewels; des Grieux hires thugs to detain him for a night; the couple eat his dinner and are about to sleep in his bed when his father arrives and has them arrested. They are imprisoned in the Petit Châtelet [fr]; des Grieux is freed by his father's influence, and Manon is deported to New Orleans as a correction girl.

Des Griex accompanies Manon to America, pretending they are married. After some time living in idyllic peace, des Griex asks the Governor, Étienne Perier, to officially wed him to Manon. The Governor instead decides to give Manon to his nephew, Synnelet. Des Grieux duels Synnelet and knocks him unconscious; thinking he has killed the man, the couple flee into the wilderness. Manon dies of exposure and des Grieux buries her, digging her grave with his broken sword. Heartbroken, he is taken back to France by Tiberge.

Composition and publication

Antoine François Prévost in 1745

Antoine François Prévost was a French priest and author. In the 1710s he moved multiple times between a career in the military and a novitiate in the Jesuit priesthood. He joined the Benedictines of St Maur after an unhappy love affair, which has sometimes contributed to speculation that Manon Lescaut has autobiographical inspirations.^[4] In 1728 he left his abbey without permission, and his superiors gained a lettre de cachet for his arrest.^[4] He fled to England, where he published the first four volumes of his successful serial novel Memoirs and Adventures of a Man of Quality, Who Withdrew from the World (French: Mémoires et aventures d'un homme de qualité, qui s'est retiré du monde).^[5]

In 1730, he moved to the Netherlands and signed a contract with the Compagnie des Libraires d'Amsterdam for three more volumes of Memoirs and Adventures.^[6] Prévost likely composed Manon Lescaut in March and April 1731.^[7] At the time, he was in Amsterdam, and was writing quickly to satisfy his contract.^[7] The story was first published in May 1731, as volume VII of Memoirs and Adventures, alongside volumes V and VI.^[8] Beginning in 1733, the Compagnie des Libraires d'Amsterdam also published volume VII on its own, as it proved more popular than the rest of the series.^[9]

First page of the original 1731 version, as volume VII of Mémoires et aventures

First page of the 1753 revised and illustrated edition

In 1753, Prévost published a substantially revised edition of volume VII as a standalone publication.^[10] The standalone volume was titled The Story of the Chevalier des Grieux and of Manon Lescaut (French: Histoire du Chevalier des Grieux et de Manon Lescaut),^[11] which was the subtitle of volume VII of Memoirs and Adventures.^[12] This edition claimed on its title page to be published in Amsterdam by the Compagnie des Libraires, but was actually published in Paris by François Didot.^[13] In this edition, Prévost modified some of his most sensationalist language,^[13] added a new scene where Manon resists the seduction of an Italian prince,^[14] and rewrote the ending to replace des Grieux's religious conversion with a more secular morality.^[13] The 1753 edition also added nine illustrations, including an allegorical vignette on the first page in which an old man guides a young one toward a crucifix and away from a woman surrounded by flowers and cupids.^{[15][note 3]} The illustrations introduced in the 1758 edition made the book into more of a "luxury object", and also made it more challenging to pirate.^[17]

Style

The narrative of Manon Lescaut is set apart from the main events of Memoirs and Adventures with both a preface and a preamble.^[18] The preface, titled "Note from the author" (French: Avis de l'Auteur), explains that the story was too large to include within the main narrative.^[19] It also says the story will be a morally-instructive example for readers, who will learn not to imitate des Grieux.^[20] The preamble is narrated by the unnamed "man of quality" (French: homme de qualité) who is the protagonist of the main novel. He witnesses a group of prostitutes being deported. Curious about a particularly beautiful one (Manon), he speaks with the lover travelling with her (des Grieux). Two years later, he encounters des Grieux again, and asks to hear the full story of his experience in America.^[21]

The story is thus narrated retroactively as a long speech, delivered by des Grieux nine months after Manon's death.^[22][23] As such, it is an early example of the French genre of the confessional récit.^[24] All events are recounted in the first person, and shaped by des Grieux's retrospective self-justifications.^[23] The primary verb tense is passé simple, a past-tense form that is only used in formal written French.^[25][26] The novel does not use quotation marks, even when des Grieux relates what other characters have said.^[13] This blurs the boundaries between characters' speech and free indirect speech.^[13] Des Grieux's telling frequently interrupts the narrative with apostrophes to absent figures and expressions of intense emotion.^[27] When he describes Manon, he often stutters or struggles to find words.^[27] Prévost was praised for this informal and expressive style, which invited sympathetic emotion: according to the literary historian Sylviane Albertan-Coppola, "[t]he words flow as the heart overflows; the flow of feelings goes hand in hand with the flow of writing" (French: "Les mots coulent comme déborde le cœur; le flot des sentiments ca de pair avec le flux de l'écriture").^[28]

Major themes

Tragic love

The Burial of Manon Lescaut (1878), by Pascal Dagnan-Bouveret

The story is particularly remembered for its tragic lovers, with des Grieux and Manon being compared to Romeo and Juliet and Tristan and Iseult.^[29] The scholar Jean Sgard argues that all of Prévost's writing, including Manon Lescaut, is ultimately about "the impossibility of happiness, the pervasiveness of evil and the misfortune attaching to the passions", all of which lead to "mourning without end".^[30] Although the book depicts its protagonists as suffering due to their poverty, it is not a populist novel that advocates for social reform.^[31] Instead, the novel responds to their struggles with sadness and resignation.^[31] It is an early example of the emerging sentimental novel, in which love can justify anything, and important moral value is placed on strong emotion.^[32]

Scandalizing immorality

On the novel's first publication, the characters and their choices were seen as shockingly immoral.^[33] Des Grieux's rejection of the priesthood in favor of a sexual relationship without marriage, and his crimes of fraud and murder, challenged readers' expectations of acceptable actions for the hero of a novel.^[34] Manon's willingness to have sex for money, and her general taste for pleasure and luxury, also seemed irreconcilable with her narrative role as a sympathetic love object.^[34] Both were sometimes seen as corrupted characters,^[34] and the novel's realistic depiction of Paris's "low life" was unusual and potentially threatening.^[35] Although the preface claims to disavow the characters' misbehavior, this is usually seen as an insincere pretense.^[36][37] The scandal was intensified by the historical setting of the novel: the story is set between 1717 and 1715, so it takes place during the final years of Louis XIV's conservative and orderly reign, rather than during the regency of King Louis XV when stories of corruption would be less surprising.^[38][39]

Social rank and money

1827 engraving of Manon crying, consoled by des Grieux, during one of their stints of poverty

The novel is unusual in the French tradition for its detailed depiction of lower-class locations and activities, especially the criminal world.^[40] Manon is considered "the first commoner heroine in French fiction",^[41] and the gulf in social rank between her and the noble des Grieux is an obstacle to their love.^[42] Des Grieux and Manon sometimes struggle to understand each other due to their different backgrounds.^[43] For example, Manon does not understand why des Grieux is surprised and upset after she acquires money from other lovers; her different background leads her to see these as practical affairs, which do not threaten her love for des Grieux.^[43][44] Their difference in rank is also apparent in the different punishments they receive for their transgressions.^[45] When both lovers are imprisoned for some of their crimes, des Grieux's aristocratic status shields him from the worst consequences while Manon ends up deported.^[45] Des Grieux often finds that even complete strangers will help him, if they share his aristocratic background.^[46] The novel thus highlights how justice is enforced unequally for different ranks of society.^[45]

A distinct, and even greater challenge is their lack of money.^[42] As an aristocrat, des Grieux is barred from ordinary employment; he could earn a professional income in the church, the military, or the law, but only if he still had his father's support.^[47] The literary scholar Haydn Mason describes the novel's setting as "a harsh and sordid world, motivated almost universally by money".^[47] Manon Lescaut is often highlighted as the first French novel to treat money as a major theme.^[42][48] Exact numbers are provided throughout the novel, an unusual choice that contributes to the novel's realism.^[49] Manon begins the novel with a dowry of 300 livres, which is less than a tenth of an ordinary dowry for a woman entering a convent.^[50] The annual salary for a servant (Manon and de Grieux each keep one) was 100 livres, while Manon and de Grieux consider a "respectable but simple" annual income to be 6,000 livres per year.^[50] The financial gap between the lovers and their servants is large, but the gap between them and their patrons is even larger: two of Manon's lovers offer her 20,000 and 30,000 livres as annual spending money.^[50]

The character of Manon

Since the novel's first publication, substantial critical analysis has focused on the interpretation of Manon's character.^[51] Because Manon's words and actions are always related through the filter of des Grieux's retrospective storytelling, readers can only speculate about her real thoughts, feelings, and intentions.^[52]

The earliest reviews in 1733 saw Manon as sympathetic but unexpectedly so, an unworthy "whore" (French: catin) who was nonetheless appealing due to the sincerity of her love for des Grieux.^[53][54] She was both blamed and forgiven for des Grieux's corruption.^[55] The illustrations in the 1753 edition reinforced the image of Manon as someone to be loved, pitied, and forgiven for her mistakes.^[56] Eighteenth-century readers also saw Manon and des Grieux as helpless, fated to a tragic ending.^[57] The crimes of both were equally justified by their love and their financial need.^[57]

1886 illustration of Manon as Eve

Manon's reputation began to change in the nineteenth century, as she became a near-mythological figure.^[58] Rather than being a simple, lighthearted girl of common birth, she was depicted as either a femme fatale who destroys des Grieux, or as a hooker with a heart of gold who is redeemed through her death.^[58] In 1832, Alfred de Musset's poem Namouna described Manon as "an astonishing sphinx, a true siren, a thrice feminine heart".^[58] Adaptations like the popular opera Manon (1884) characterized Manon as powerfully seductive.^[58] Alexandre Dumas fils, whose novel The Lady of the Camellias (1848) was heavily inspired by Manon Lescaut, wrote of Manon: "you are sensuality, you are instinct, you are pleasure, the eternal temptation of man".^[58] The literary historian Naomi Segal summarizes this period as one in which most critics "tend to view Manon as if she were a real woman and to heap upon her all the myths which operate within sexual politics in the non-fictional world".^[59]

Twentieth-century scholarly interpretations tend to see Manon as the victim, not of her own weakness, but of various social systems.^[60] For these readers, des Grieux's version of events is considered suspect,^[61] and it is important to imagine how Manon might have narrated her story differently.^[60][23] Feminist theorists like Nancy K. Miller and Segal see Manon as a narrative victim of patriarchy.^[60] Cultural-historical theorists see the novel as a conflict between aristocratic and bourgeois ideologies; Manon is marginalized by her class, but makes savvy decisions to strategically ensure her survival.^[60] Outside of academia, modern readers sometimes find Manon underdeveloped as a character.^[62] Twenty-first century adaptations reinforced a sociological interpretation of Manon's character.^[63] Several adaptations translate the story to more recent time periods in French history, in which Manon is always a non-conformist who boldly pursues love despite disadvantaged circumstances.^[64]

Reception

Manon Lescaut gained popularity gradually.^[65] When first published in 1731 as part of Memoirs and Adventures, it was not discussed separately from the rest of the novel.^[65] Over the next few years, it was increasingly seen as a highlight of that novel.^[65] Reviewers universally praised the novel, especially for its success inducing tears.^[66] Memoirs and Adventures sold well in Holland and England on its first release, and a 1732 German translation was also successful, but it was largely ignored in France until 1733.^[67]

Illustration from the 1753 edition of Manon Lescaut, published in response to popular unauthorized reprints of the volume

In July 1733, the release of standalone edition of Manon Lescaut prompted a review in the clandestine Journal de la Cour et de Paris, which brought it to the attention of many new readers, including the famous author Voltaire.^[67][54][68] On October 5, the French censors (who needed to approve all new publications) seized the copies currently for sale due to the book's morally questionable content.^{[67][note 4]} This effective ban led to a sudden increase in popularity.^[65] As part of this new popularity, Manon Lescaut was printed separately from Memoirs and Adventures several times,^[69] including in unauthorized reprints.^[53] In 1753, Prévost responded with a high-quality revised edition of Manon Lescaut as a self-contained novel.^[70] Both Memoirs and Adventures and the standalone Manon Lescaut were reprinted frequently, with twenty editions of the first and eight of the latter appearing between 1731 and Prévost's death in 1763.^[70]

Interest in the novel waned at the start of the nineteenth century, followed by another dramatic increase in popularity in 1830,^[54] when it was adapted as a ballet.^[58] Many further adaptations followed, with new reprints of Manon Lescaut each year.^[58] In the late nineteenth century, editions were released with prefaces written by the famous French authors Alexandre Dumas fils in 1875 and Anatole France in 1878.^[71] Over time, the novel came to be regarded as a historical classic.^[72] It has become the most reprinted novel in French literature, with over 250 editions published between 1731 and 1981.^[72]

Adaptations

Stage adaptations

The first theatrical adaptation of Manon Lescaut was in 1772.^[73] This was a comedy titled The Virtuous Courtesan (French: La Courtisane vertueuse),^[74] which ends with Manon surviving.^[75] It attempted to mix a sensitive and emotional portrayal of the lovers with some humour,^[74] but reviewers found it far inferior to the novel.^[73] There were a few dramas in the eighteenth century and the Romantic period, followed by a larger number in the early twentieth century.^[76] Relatively few of the early theatrical adaptations of Manon Lescaut have survived.^[77] Although ballets and operas of Manon Lescaut became popular,^[78] only three theatrical dramas had even a modest success: The Virtuous Courtesan (1772), Manon Lescaut et le chevalier Desgrieux (1820), and Manon Lescaut (1851).^[74] All three include some incidental music, and the 1820 melodrama is also accompanied by a ballet.^[78] These adaptations dramatize the narrative in similar ways.^[71] Key scenes that they consistently include are the reconciliation at Saint-Sulpice, the scene with the Italian prince, and des Grieux's desperate burial of Manon in Louisiana.^[71]

Sibyl Sanderson as Manon for an 1891 production of Jules Massenet's Manon (1884)

Maria Farneti as Manon for a 1900 production of Giacomo Puccini's Manon Lescaut (1893)

The first operatic adaptation, in 1836, was not a success.^[79] The literary historian Jean Sgard argues that operatic adaptations came late in the legacy of the novel because the story's mixture of genres was incompatible with the eighteenth century's dominant genre of serious opera characterized by Handel and Rameau.^[79] An important change in operatic precedent came after Giuseppe Verdi's highly successful 1853 opera, La traviata ("The Fallen Woman").^[80] La traviata is based on the play and novel The Lady of the Camellias (French: La Dame aux Camélias) by Alexandre Dumas fils, which are themselves heavily inspired by Manon Lescaut.^[81] After 1853, six operas based on Manon Lescaut were written.^[82] These operas varied widely in how they adapted the story: it was divided into differing numbers of sections (from three to seven acts), and adaptations existed in the different operatic genres of comic opera, opera, and lyric drama.^[82] The most renowned adaptations of Manon Lescaut are the operas by Daniel Auber (1856), Jules Massenet (1884), and Giacomo Puccini (1893).^[73]

In the theatrical and operatic adaptations, Manon's three lovers are combined into just one.^[83][71] Theatrical adaptations simplify the plot to one instance of infidelity, a reconciliation, and then the final tragedy,^[71] and operatic adaptations forgo the novel's long decline to dramatically juxtapose young love and tragic death.^[83] The literary scholar Jean Sgard argues that, by reducing the complexity of the narrative, the theatrical adaptations present the lovers as being disproportionately punished for a single mistake, rather than capturing the novel's feeling of a gradual descent into immorality.^[71] He further argues that operatic adaptations are forced to focus on a one-note characterization of Manon,^{[84][note 5]} and each opera's evaluation of her moral character is expressed in its depiction of her death.^[85]

List of dramas, operas and ballets

• The Virtuous Courtesan (French: La Courtisane vertueuse) (1772), a theatrical comedy by Brenner à C. Ribié^{[74][note 6]}
• Manon Lescaut et le chevalier Desgrieux (1820), a melodrama by Étienne Gosse^[86]
• Manon Lescaut (1830), a ballet by Jean-Louis Aumer^{[87][note 7]}
• Manon Lescaut, or the Maid of Artois (1836), an opera by the Irish composer Michael-William Balfe^{[79][note 8]}
• Manon Lescaut (1846), a ballet by Giovanni Casati^{[87][note 9]}
• Manon Lescaut (1851), a drama by Théodore Barrière and Marc Fournier^[79]
• Manon Lescaut (1852), a ballet by Giovanni Colinelli^{[87][note 10]}
• Manon Lescaut (1856), an opera by French composer Daniel Auber^{[79][note 11]}
• Manon (1884), an opera by French composer Jules Massenet^{[79][note 12]}
• Manon Lescaut, or the Castle of Lorme (German: Manon Lescaut oder Schloss de Lorme) (1887), an opera by Richard Kleinmichel^[82]
• Manon Lescaut (1893), an opera by the Italian composer Giacomo Puccini^{[82][note 13]}
• Manon Lescaut (1940), a drama in verse by Czech poet Vítězslav Nezval^{[87][note 14]}
• Boulevard Solitude (1952), an opera by German composer Hans Werner Henze^{[82][note 15]}
• Manon (1974), a ballet with music by Jules Massenet and choreography by Kenneth MacMillan^{[88][note 16]}
• Manon (2015), a musical written for the Takarazuka troupe by librettist/director Keiko Ueda and composer Joy Son^[89]

Film adaptations

John Barrymore as des Grieux and Dolores Costello as Manon in When a Man Loves (1927)

Manon Lescaut was adapted several times after the invention of film.^[90] These include a series of silent films, the most prominent of which is the 1927 Hollywood adaptation titled When a Man Loves.^[90] Early adaptations were period films, set in the early eighteenth century;^[90] later film adaptations translate the novel's story to a contemporary setting.^[64] The 1949 film Manon by Henri-Georges Clouzot depicts des Grieux as a member of the French Resistance and Manon as a Nazi collaborator; he and Manon enter the black market and eventually stowaway to Palestine with a group of Jewish refugees.^[63][87] In Manon 70 by Jean Aurel, released in 1968 and set in the near-future of 1970, des Grieux is a globetrotting radio journalist who tags along with Manon's sugar baby lifestyle;^[91] instead of ending with Manon's tragic death, this film concludes with both Manon and des Grieux hitchhiking.^[63] A pair of television miniseries directed by Jean-Xavier de Lestrade in 2014 and 2017 presents Manon as a contemporary young woman in a youth detention center^{[note 17]} who is failed by social systems and lives precariously.^[92]

List of films

• Manon Lescaut (1908), Italian silent film directed by Carlo Rossi^[87][93]
• Manon Lescaut (1914), American silent film directed by H.H. Winslow^[87]
• Manon Lescaut (1926), German silent film directed by Arthur Robison, with Lya de Putti and Marlene Dietrich^[87][94]
• When a Man Loves (1927), American silent film directed by Alan Crosland, with John Barrymore and Dolores Costello^[95]
• Manon Lescaut (1940), Italian, directed by Carmine Gallone, with Vittorio de Sica and Alida Valli^[96]
• Manon (1949), French, directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot, with Michel Auclair and Cécile Aubry^[90][63]
• The Lovers of Manon Lescaut (1954), French, directed by Mario Costa^[97]
• Manon 70 (1968), French, directed by Jean Aurel, with Catherine Deneuve and Sami Frey^[98][63]
• Manon (1981), Japanese, directed by Yōichi Higashi^[87][99]
• Manón (1986), Venezuelan, directed by Román Chalbaud, with Mayra Alejandra^[100]
• Manon Lescaut (2013), French television film, directed by Gabriel Aghion, with Céline Perreau and Samuel Theis^[101][63]
• 3 x Manon (2014) and Manon, 20 years old (French: Manon 20 ans) (2017), French television miniseries by Jean-Xavier de Lestrade^[63]

Translations

The 1753 version of the novel is more common in modern editions.^[13] English translations of the original 1731 version of the novel include Helen Waddell's 1931 translation with a foreword by George Saintsbury.^[102] For the 1753 revision there are English translations by, among others, L. W. Tancock (Penguin, 1949—which divides the 2-part novel into a number of chapters),^[103] Donald M. Frame (Signet, 1961—which notes differences between the 1731 and 1753 editions),^[104] Angela Scholar (Oxford, 2004—with extensive notes and commentary),^[105] and Andrew Brown (Hesperus, 2004—with a foreword by Germaine Greer).^[106]

Henri Valienne (1854–1908), a physician and author of the first novel in the constructed language Esperanto, translated Manon Lescaut into that language. His translation was published in Paris in 1908,^[107] and reissued by the British Esperanto Association in 1926.^[108]

Illustrations

Illustration by Maurice Leloir for a 1904 edition, showing des Grieux and Manon being arrested in the young G—— M——'s bedroom.

Several illustrated editions of Manon Lescaut have been produced, though it attracted substantially fewer illustrations than other bestsellers of the period like Voltaire's 1759 novella Candide.^[109] A 1963 catalogue identified 63 editions with original or notable illustrations, produced globally.^[109] New illustrated editions were produced most decades from 1780 to 1980.^[109] The novel also inspired a range of standalone visual interpretations (i.e., prints and paintings), though again fewer than similar eighteenth-century bestsellers; the visual iconography of Paul et Virginie (1788), for example, more firmly entered popular culture.^[109]

Notes

1. The scene being illustrated reads "Her old guardian having by this time joined us, my hopes would have been blighted, but that she had tact enough to make amends for my stupidity. I was surprised, on his approaching us, to hear her call me her cousin, and say, without being in the slightest degree disconcerted, that as she had been so fortunate as to fall in with me at Amiens, she would not go into the convent until the next morning, in order to have the pleasure of meeting me at supper. Innocent as I was, I at once comprehended the meaning of this ruse; and proposed that she should lodge for the night at the house of an innkeeper, who, after being many years my father's coachman, had lately established himself at Amiens, and who was sincerely attached to me." (French: Son vieil Argus étant venu nous rejoindre, mes espérances allaient échouer si elle n'eût eu assez d'esprit pour suppléer à la stérilité du mien. Je fus surpris, à l'arrivée de son conducteur qu'elle m'appelât son cousin et que, sans paraître déconcertée le moins du monde, elle me dît que, puisqu'elle était assez heureuse pour me rencontrer à Amiens, elle remettait au lendemain son entrée dans le couvent, afin de se procurer le plaisir de souper avec moi. J'entrai fort bien dans le sens de cette ruse. Je lui proposai de se loger dans une hôtellerie, dont le maître, qui s'était établi à Amiens, après avoir été longtemps cocher de mon père, était dévoué entièrement à mes ordres.)
2. This character name is blanked out in the original text. Starting in the early eighteenth century, salacious narratives based on real gossip (known as "secret histories") were published with the names of key figures partially blanked (or "disemvowelled") to avoid accusations of libel.^[2] Novels often presented themselves as authentic memoirs because fiction was not well respected; to enhance the illusion, they blanked the names of fictional characters.^[3]
3. The image is captioned "what torments you endure in Charybdis, young man worthy of a nobler love". The deadly mythological whirlpool Charybdis was a common metaphor for prostitutes who would "ruin" noble young men; the overall allegory suggests that the novel will be a story of temptation and suffering, concluding with "a victory for sacred over profane love."^[16]
4. According to the Journal de la Cour et de Paris, the book was seized because "Besides the fact that people are made to play roles that are unworthy of them, vice and excess are depicted in ways that do not give enough horror." (French: Outre que l'on y fait jouer agens en place des roles peu dignes d'eux, le vice et le debordement y sont peints avec des traits qui n'en donnent pas assez d'horreur.)^[67]
5. Sgard says: "With opera, you have to choose: Manon will be a bird caught in a trap (Auber), a deviant woman redeeming herself (Verdi), a weak woman searching for herself (Massenet), a free and rebellious woman (Puccini), a being in perdition (Henze)" (French: "Avec l'opéra, il faut choisir: Manon sera donc un oiseau pris au piège (Auber), une dévoyée se rachète (Verdi), une faible femme qui se cherche elle-même (Massenet), une femme libre et révoltée (Puccini), un être en perdition (Henze)")^[84]
6. In four acts. This play was first published in London and Paris in 1772, and reprinted with the title Manon Lescaut ou la courtisane vertueuse in 1774, but not performed until 1782.^[74]
7. Music by Fromental Halevy. First performed at the Paris Opera Ballet.
8. Libretto by Bunn. First performed at Drury Lane on May 27, 1836, sung by Malibran.^[79]
9. Music by Vincenzo Bellini. First staged at Teatro Alla Scalla. Ends with Manon marrying Des Grieux rather than dying.
10. Music by Matthias Trebinger.
11. Comic opera in three acts. Libretto by Eugène Scribe. First performed at the Opéra-Comique.^[79]
12. Comic opera in five acts. Libretto by Henri Meilhac and Philippe Gilles. First performed at the Opéra-Comique on January 19, 1884.^[79]
13. Lyric drama in four acts. Libretto by L. Illica, G. Giacosa. M. Praga, R. Leoncavallo, and G. Ricordi. First performed in Turin, February 1, 1893.^[82]
14. First performed at the D40 theatre, a radical theatre in Prague.
15. Lyric drama in seven acts. Libretto by Greta Wiel. First performed in Hanover on February 17, 1952.
16. The music by Massenet is not from Massenet's Manon Lescaut, but rather is a selection of his other pieces selected to suit MacMillan's version of the story.^[88]
17. More specifically, a centre éducatif fermé [fr], a French alternative for prison for minors.^[63]