Muskogean languages

"Muskogean" redirects here. For the indigenous people, see Muscogee.

Muskogean (also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. Members of the family are Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is no longer spoken, and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

Muskogean
Geographic distribution	Southeastern North America
Linguistic classification	One of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions	Choctaw–Chickasaw Alabama–Koasati Hitchiti–Mikasuki Muscogee Apalachee Houma
Language codes
Glottolog	musk1252
Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages

Genetic relationships

Family division

The Muskogean family consists of Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (or Creek), Koasati, Apalachee, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki.^[1] Hitchiti is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki.^[2] "Seminole" is sometimes used for a dialect of Muscogee spoken in Oklahoma.^[3]

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.^[4][5][6] Apalachee is no longer spoken; its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain, but Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.^[7]

Haas's classification

For connections among these groupings, one influential classification is that of Mary Haas and Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.^[8] That classification is reflected in the list below:^[9][10][11]

• Muskogean
  • Western Muskogean
    • Chickasaw
    • Choctaw (also called Chahta, Chacato)
  • Eastern Muskogean
    • Muscogee (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and Creek)
    • Hitchiti-Mikasuki (also called Miccosukee)
    • Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati
      • Apalachee †
      • Alabama (also called Alibamu)
      • Koasati (also called Coushatta)

Munro's classification

A different classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is then subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).^[8] The classification is reflected in the list below:^[12]

• Muskogean
  • Northern Muskogean
    • Muscogee
  • Southern Muskogean
    • Hitchiti-Mikasuki
    • Southwestern Muskogean
      • Apalachee †
      • Alabama–Koasati
        • Alabama
        • Koasati
      • Western Muskogean
        • Chickasaw
        • Choctaw

Broader relationships

Possible Muskogean languages

Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean.^[13][14] However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.^[15] It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.^[16] The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of Hitchiti, Coweta, and Cussita.^[17]

The Amacano, Chacato, Chine, Pacara, and Pensacola people, who lived along the Gulf Coast of Florida from the Big Bend Coast to Pensacola Bay, are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.^{[18][19][20][21]}

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi in northeastern South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby Siouan and Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.^[22]

A vocabulary of the Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of Mobilian Jargon, a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

Gulf

Main article: Gulf languages

The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.^[13][23] Some Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.^[24]

Features

Nouns

Nouns in Muskogean languages may take prefixes indicating the person and number of a possessor. Noun phrases may be marked for grammatical case, with a distinction between subjects (nominative case) and nonsubjects (oblique case). Some Muskogean languages have affixes indicating plural nouns (generally human nouns) or groups.

Verbs

Muskogean verbs are highly synthetic, with affixes for tense, aspect, person, number, direction, and mood. While case marking is nominative–accusative, person marking is active–stative, with separate series of agent, patient, and indirect object person markers.

Verbs have a complex system of ablaut indicating aspect. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades" or "themes".^[25]

All the languages make use of suppletive verbs indicating the number of the subject in an intransitive verb or the number of the direct object in a transitive verb.

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:^[26]

haca:l-om

stand.SG.SBJ

haca:l-om

stand.SG.SBJ

"(one) is standing"

loko:k-om

stand.DU

loko:k-om

stand.DU

"(two) stand"

loko:ka:c-om

stand.PL

loko:ka:c-om

stand.PL

"(three or more) stand"

Vocabulary

Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):^[27]

Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)

gloss Chickasaw Choctaw Alabama Mikasuki Muscogee all mõma mõma óyha maamos- omalka ashes hottok hitokchobi histo tolhambi iisso belly ittakoba' iffoka ikfi lampi nalhki big ishto chito coba coob- lhakkii bird foshi' hoshi foosi foosi foswa bite kisili kopooli kachalhlhi kabalikci akkita black losa losa loca looci lasti blood issish issish lhakhani picikci caati bone foni' foni cokfoni -fooni iffoni breast ip shik ip shik pisi owaaci hokpi burn lowa lowah libatli yill- noklhita claw iyyakchosh iyyakchosh iyyaksi iiyakoosi ilinkososwa cloud hoshonti hoshõti onoolici hosoti aholocii cold kapassa kapassa kasatka kapaali kasappi come minti m ti ila ont- atita die illi illi illi il- ilita dog ofi' ofi ifa iifi ifa drink ishko ishko isko isk- iskita dry shila shila solotka sokook- kalhpii ear haksibis haksobish hakco hacoobi hakco earth yakni' yakni ihaani yakni iikana eat impa pa ipa imp- hompita egg akankoshi' akãkoshi akaakocóòsi onaasi costaki eye ishkin nishkin ittilhi iti tolhwa fat (grease) niha bila nitokci niihi nihaa fire lowak lowak tikba iiti tootka fish nani' nani lhalho lhaalhi lhalho fly, to wakaa hika wakayka yakaal- tamkita foot iyyi' iyyi iyyi iyi ili full kayya kayya kayya labakni fackita give ima ima inka iik- imita good chokma achokma kano hiilhi h lhi green okchamali okchamaali okcakko honotbitalakci laani hair pãshi'/hishi' pãshi/hishi hissi tokisi issi hand ilbak ibbak ilbi ilbi inki head ishkobo' noshkobo isbakko yoosi ika hear hánglo haklo haalo hakl- pohita heart chõkash chõkash conoska conosbi fiiki horn lapish lapish lapihci lap-i yapi I ano' ano ana aani ani kill abi abi ibi ill c iliicita knee iyyinto'lhka' iyyi kalaaha ittôlhpa tolhpi tolhkowa know ithána ikhana sobayli ataalh kilhlhita lie down, to tí'wa talaaya baláàli talaal wakkita liver salakha salakha illopi lopi lopi long falaa falaaya baski backi capki louse issap issap icha hicahci icka man hattak nakni' hattak nakni naani nakni honanwa many lawa lawa lawa aconki solkii meat (flesh) nipi' nipi nipo akni apiswa mountain onchaba habik bokkoscaaha iikanhalwii mouth iti itialbi icokhalbi ici cokwa name holhchifo hohchifo holcifa hocilki hocifka neck nokhistap ikkõla nokbi nokbi nokwa new himitta himmona hahpa himaci mocasi night oklhili' ninak tanka niilhaki nilhii nose ibichchala' ibishakni ibisaani ibi yopoo not ki'yo kiiyo mánko maati monks one chaffa achaffa caffaaka lhaamin hamkin person (human) hattak hattak aati yaati isti rain omba õba oyba okoob- oskita red homma homma homma kitisci caati road (path) hina' hina hini hini nini root haksish hakshish assikci aski yalomka round lhibokta kalaaha bonotka polocki polooki say aachi aachi manka kaac maakita sand shinok shinok sanco samooci oktaaha see p sa p sa hicha hica hicita seed nihi' nihi hilhikci yiilhi nilhka sit bínni'li biniili cokóòli cokool- leykita skin hakshop hakshop affakci halbi halhpi sleep nosi nosi noci nooc- nocita small iskanno'si osi cinoofa wink- cotki smoke shobohli shobohli sobotli ockoci ikkoci stand híkki'ya hikiiya lokóòli lokooka hoylhita star foshik fichik hociilhi owaaciki kocacampa stone tali' tali tali tali cato sun hashi' hashi hasi haasi hasi swim yopi okshiniili oohapka opahk- omeyyita tail hasimbish has bis haci haaci haci that yamma ma akki ma ma this yappa pa ya ya ya thou ishno' chishno isna cihn- ciimi tongue isõlash ittõlas icoolaksi cokolaasi tolaaswa tooth noti' noti innati -nooti noti tree itti' itti itto ahi ito two toklo toklo tôklo toklan hokkoolin walk nõwa nowa ciyahli cayahl yakapita warm (hot) lashpa lashpa ikba hãyyi hayyita water oka' oka oki ooki oywa we poshno' pishno posna pohni poomi what nanta natah náàsi naaki naaki white tohbi tohbi hatka hatki hatki who kata katah náksi noolh- isteyma woman ihoo ohooyo tayyi tayki hoktii yellow lakna lakna laana lakni laanii

Proto-language

Proto-Muskogean
Reconstruction of	Muskogean languages

Phonology

Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in IPA transcription):^[28]

	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar
		Central	Lateral		Plain	Labialized
Stops	*p	*t			*k	*kʷ
Affricates		*ts		*tʃ
Fricatives		*s	*ɬ	*ʃ	*x	*xʷ
Nasals	*m	*n
Approximants			*l	*j		*w
Other		*θ

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as */x/ and */xʷ/ show up as /h/ and /f/ (or /ɸ/^[29]), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;^[30] they are therefore reconstructed by some as */h/ and */ɸ/.^[12][31] */kʷ/ appears as /b/ in all the daughter languages except Muscogee for which it is /k/ initially and /p/ medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written ⟨θ⟩ (or ⟨N⟩) is unknown;^[32] it appears as /n/ in Western Muskogean languages and as /ɬ/ in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless /n/ (that is, */n̥/), based partly on presumed cognates in Natchez.^[12][33]

Lexicon

Proto-Muskogean lexical reconstructions by Booker (2005) are as follows.

Proto-Muskogean reconstructions by Booker (2005)

no. gloss Proto-Muskogean branch 1 dove, pigeon *pačiCi 2 stem, stalk *apiCi 3 rock *taliCi 4 tooth *notiCi 5 skunk *koniCo 6 (to) bloom *pakanli 7 arrow *θakiCi 8 night *niθaki 9 yellow-shafted pucker *xʷitokxaki 10 mulberry *kʷixiCi 11 (to) copy, imitate *a-xokʷa 12 behind *yokʷala 13 pokeweed *kosikʷaCa 14 (to) have ringworm *xiClampakʷi 15 overtake *¢aCki 16 (to) sleep *no¢i 17 fox *čolaCa 18 crawfish *sakačiCo 19 otter *osana 20 (to) boil *moxoθi 21 pass through *lompotVli 22 peel off *čilaxʷa 23 pull, hold *xalato 24 seed (in fruit) *nixiliCi 25 ashes *ixistoko 26 (to) sit (pl) *kaxa 27 land *ixakanika 28 (to) vomit) *axowita 29 medicine *axinlisi 30 axe *čaxaxʷi 31 duck *xʷočo 32 (to) name *xocixʷa 33 screech owl *xaxʷonlo 34 grandfather *axʷaCo 35 (to) beat, stir up *kʷaxʷo 36 (to) gnaw *kalixʷi 37 fall off *čilaxʷa 38 (to) whip, lash *loCkanxʷo 39 chief, king *minkkoCo 40 (to) protrude *xʷama 41 bone *xʷoniCi 42 liver, marrow *lopiCi 43 (to) scratch, slice *kalaxʷa 44 back (of body) *θali 45 spring (of water) *kaliCi 46 (to) doctor *alikci 47 horn *(i-)lapi 48 cuckoo *talonktaCi 49 grubworm *yolaCa 50 turtle *lok¢iCa 51 (to) go *aya 52 crane *watonlaka 53 wildcat *kowiCi 54 cricket *šalontakiCa 55 squash *šoksiCi 56 ant *šonkkʷani 57 skin, rind *axʷakšopi 58 son *ošiCi 59 tendon, muscle, blood vessel, intestine *xʷikši 60 yellow, green, brown *lakna 61 trout *¢akliCo 62 two *toklo 63 sifting basket *sakla 64 soft-shelled turtle *xolakwaCa 65 hole, hollow *olakkʷi 66 sun *xasiCi 67 (to) offer *wayli 68 hoe *loyli 69 (to) mark *čawli 70 persimmon *xoθkoxʷa 71 mushroom *paktiCo 72 sack, bag *sokča 73 ghost *silopi 74 turkey *xʷakito 75 betsy bug *i¢sonksiCo 76 (to) beg, plead for *kosapi 77 hear *xaklo 78 earthworm *lakapčo 79 peach *tapakonla 80 (of liquid) *¢itko 81 flat and wide *patakxa 82 wise *ko¢tini 83 small *i¢katini 84 (to) shoot at and hit *i¢xo 85 smoke *ičkoči 86 mother *ičkiCi 87 rectum *ičkoCkʷiko 88 (to) inflate *sokpaxʷa 89 destroy, ruin *xokpani 90 (to) adhere to *alokpa 91 (to) pucker *wiliksi Proto-Eastern Muskogean 92 double *poktaCa 93 tree *iktiCo 94 frog *sokaktiCi 95 pass wind *xok¢o 96 upper arm *sakkʷaCa 97 astringent tasting *tikkʷa 98 opossum *sokxaCa 99 rabbit *čokxʷiCi 100 jaw, chin *notakxʷa 101 bramble, briar *kʷakčoko Proto-Eastern Muskogean 102 rib, side *nak¢iCi 103 flea *kastiCo 104 (to) drink *isko 105 rot, decay *toskʷi 106 knee *in-tolkopa 107 father *iθkiCi 108 (to) steal *xoθkopa 109 young *ximanixta 110 day *nixtaka 111 river *xaxčaCi 112 hungry *xox(ʷ)čaxʷa 113 different *im-alaxka 114 (to) pinch *yikixʷla 115 skin *xalkʷiCi 116 wife *xaliki Proto-Eastern Muskogean 117 (to) forget *ilxosi Proto-Eastern Muskogean 118 (to) grow, sprout *xolxʷanti 119 white oak *kʷalyiCa 120 pine *colyi Proto-Eastern Muskogean 121 (to) raise animals *apoykʷa 122 (to) eat (a meal) *impa 123 (to) come *ominti 124 pawpaw *onkʷiCo 125 breast *ipinsiki 126 (to) hide *xolamxi 127 buy *lonxʷa 128 (to) weave *taCθa 129 (to) get warm from a heat source *iCθi 130 (to) shoot at *xonC¢a 131 war *hoCli 132 (to) die *iCli 133 pepper *xoCma 134 (to) want, need *kʷaCna 135 road *xinaCi 136 dark *tampki 137 stout *lampko 138 snake *¢inCtiCo 139 hard, rigid *wantxa Proto-Eastern Muskogean 140 shoot at *xonC¢a 141 (to) cloak oneself *anCči 142 whippoorwill *xačokkʷilankkʷila 143 Canada goose *axankxaCa 144 grasshopper *xatankxʷaCo 145 grass *panxsi 146 true *anxli 147 hand, lower arm *ilmkʷi 148 (to) rain *oynkʷa 149 whoop like an Indian *paynxa 150 (to) flow *xoxʷayxna 151 heavy *waylki 152 buy *čowmpa 153 (to) suck *sočonka 154 frost *xitontiki 155 (to) play a game *xompani Proto-Eastern Muskogean 156 winter *oθanxʷaCi 157 (to) pierce *lompotVli