Top Qs
Timeline
Chat
Perspective
Papua New Guinea
Country in Oceania From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Remove ads
Papua New Guinea,[note 1][13] officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania that comprises the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and offshore islands in Melanesia, a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean north of Australia. It has a land border with Indonesia to the west and neighbours Australia to the south and the Solomon Islands to the east. Its capital, on its southern coast, is Port Moresby. The country is the world's third largest island country, with an area of 462,840 km2 (178,700 sq mi).
Remove ads
The nation was split in the 1880s between German New Guinea in the North and the British Territory of Papua in the South, the latter of which was ceded to Australia in 1902. All of present-day Papua New Guinea came under Australian control following World War I, with the legally distinct Territory of New Guinea being established out of the former German colony as a League of Nations mandate. The nation was the site of fierce fighting during the New Guinea campaign of World War II. Papua New Guinea became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1975 with Elizabeth II as its Queen. Since Elizabeth II's death in 2022, Charles III has been the King.
There are 840 known languages of Papua New Guinea (including English), making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world. It is also one of the most rural countries, with only 13.25% of its population living in urban centres in 2019. Most of its people live in customary communities. Although government estimates reported the country's population to be 11.8 million, it was reported in December 2022 that its population was in fact closer to 17 million. Papua New Guinea is the most populous Pacific island country.
The country is believed to be the home of many undocumented species of plants and animals.
Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund; nearly 40% of the population are subsistence farmers, living relatively independently of the cash economy. Their traditional social groupings are explicitly acknowledged by the Papua New Guinea Constitution, which expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society" and protects their continuing importance to local and national community life. Papua New Guinea has been an observer state in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1976, and has filed its application for full membership status. It is a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Pacific Community, the Pacific Islands Forum, and the United Nations.
Remove ads
Etymology
Papua is derived from a local term of uncertain origin, that may have already been used locally to refer to at least parts of the island now called New Guinea. In 1526 Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes named the island Ilhas dos Papuas.[14][15] Regarding the islands of New Guinea, the Portuguese captain and geographer António Galvão wrote that:
The people of all these islands are blacke, and have their haire frisled, whom the people of Maluco do call Papuas.[16][non-primary source needed]
"New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez. In 1545, he noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. Guinea, in its turn, is etymologically derived from the Portuguese word Guiné. The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar etymologies, which likely means "of the burnt face" or similar, in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants.[15]
Remove ads
History
Summarize
Perspective
.jpg)
Archaeological evidence indicates that anatomically modern humans first arrived in what became New Guinea and Australia, as well as the Bismarck Archipelago, around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago. Bougainville was settled by 28,000 years ago, and the more distant Manus Island by 20,000 years ago. These migrations were likely part of one of the earliest migrations of humans from Africa, and resulting populations remained relatively isolated from the rest of the world throughout prehistory.[17] Rising sea levels isolated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago, although Aboriginal Australians and New Guineans diverged from each other genetically earlier, about 37,000 years ago.[18] The people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating that the ancestors of Papuans interbred in Asia with these archaic hominins.[19]
Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas in the world where people independently domesticated plants.[20] Archaeological evidence shows that Austronesian-speaking peoples of the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago by 3,300 years ago.[21]: 252 It is unknown whether they also settled on the mainland at this time, however there is strong evidence of their presence in coastal areas from around 500 BC.[21]: 256 These communities interacted with larger trade networks.[22] Austronesian migration has been correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques.
European traders brought the sweet potato to New Guinea, where it was adopted and became a staple food. Portuguese traders had obtained it from South America and introduced it to the Moluccas.[23] The introduction of the sweet potato, possibly alongside other agricultural changes, transformed traditional agriculture and societies and likely led to the spread of the Big man social structure. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro,[24] and resulted in a significant increase in population in the highlands. The date of the sweet potato's arrival is still disputed.[25]
Although by the late 20th century headhunting and cannibalism had been practically eradicated, in the past they were practised in many parts of the country as part of rituals related to warfare and taking in enemy spirits or powers.[26][27] In 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, missionary Harry Dauncey found 10,000 skulls in the island's long houses, a demonstration of past practices.[28] According to Marianna Torgovnick, writing in 1991, "The most fully documented instances of cannibalism as a social institution come from New Guinea, where head-hunting and ritual cannibalism survived, in certain isolated areas, into the Fifties, Sixties, and Seventies, and still leave traces within certain social groups."[29]
On New Guinea, communities were economically linked through trading networks, however aside from some political alliances each community functioned largely independently, relying on subsistence agriculture.[30]: 51
European encounters
Little was known in Europe about the island until the 19th century, although Portuguese and Spanish explorers, such as Dom Jorge de Menezes and Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, had encountered it as early as the 16th century. Traders from Southeast Asia visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collect bird-of-paradise plumes.[31]
Missionaries
Christianity was introduced to New Guinea on 15 September 1847 when a group of Marist missionaries came to Woodlark Island. They established their first mission on Umboi Island. Following that year, they were forced to withdraw their mission endeavour. Five years later on 8 October 1852, the Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions, a pontifical institute, reestablished the mission on Woodlark Island, encountering sickness and resistance from local people.[32][33]
Colonialism
.png)
With the western half of the island already annexed by the Netherlands, the eastern half was divided between two colonial powers in 1884. Germany annexed the northern portion as German New Guinea,[34]: 302 and following this the southern part of the country became a British protectorate.
In 1888, the British protectorate, as well as some adjacent islands, were annexed by Britain as British New Guinea. In 1902, Papua was effectively transferred to the authority of the new British dominion of Australia. With the passage of the Papua Act 1905, the area was officially renamed the Territory of Papua, and the Australian administration became formal in 1906.
Under European rule, social relations amongst the New Guinean population changed. Tribal fighting decreased, while in new urban areas there was greater mixing as people moved to partake in the cash crop economy. The large inequality between colonial administrators and locals led to the emergence of what colonial governments called cargo cults.[30]: 52–53 Very little land was changed, with most plantations limited to the islands and small areas of the mainland coast. However, a trading system developed with Melanesian populations exchanging copra, pearls, trochus shells, and bird-of-paradise skins.[34]: 302
Colonial authorities generally worked with individual village representatives, although in some cases an individual represented a group of villages. While these were sometimes village leaders, they were usually individuals with closer relationships to colonial officials who thus acted as intermediaries. Thus, neither German nor British authorities developed an effective system of indirect rule.[35]: 209–210
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Australian forces captured German New Guinea and occupied it throughout the war.[36] After Germany and the Central Powers were defeated in the war, the League of Nations authorised Australia to administer this area as a League of Nations mandate territory, which became the Territory of New Guinea.
In contrast to establishing an Australian mandate in former German New Guinea, the League of Nations determined that Papua was an external territory of the Australian Commonwealth; as a matter of law it remained a British possession. The difference in legal status meant that until 1949, Papua (former British protectorate Territory of Papua) and New Guinea (former German territory German New Guinea) had entirely separate administrations, both controlled by Australia. These conditions contributed to the complexity of organising the country's post-independence legal system.
More plantations were established along the coast and on the islands following the war, and a head tax was imposed that caused further participation in the colonial economy. Gold was discovered in the 1920s, and within a decade became the largest export.[34]: 302–303
The highland valleys were first explored by Australians in the 1930s and were found to be inhabited by over a million people.[37]
World War II
.jpg)
During World War II, the New Guinea campaign (1942–1945) was fought in both the mainland and offshore islands. Approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian, and U.S. servicemen died.[38] After World War II and the victory of the Allies, the two territories were combined into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea.
The Second World War punctured the myth of differences between locals and foreigners, and increased the exposure of the population to the wider world and modern social and economic ideas. It also led to significant population movements, beginning the establishment of a common identity shared by those in the two Australian-ruled territories.[30]: 53 The joint governance of both territories during the war was continued after the war ended.[34]: 302
Australian rule
Village councils were first created in both Papua and in New Guinea starting 1949, with the number steadily increasing over the years.[39]: 174–175 These created alternative power structures, which while sometimes filled by traditional leaders, saw the beginning of a shift towards leaders with administrative or business experience.[35]: 211 Australia combined Papua and New Guinea into one territory. By 1951, a 28-member Legislative Council was instituted.[36] This was largely dominated by Australian administrative members, with only 3 seats allocated to Papua New Guineans. Sir Donald Cleland, an Australian soldier, became the first administrator of this new council.[citation needed] A nationwide local government conference was held in 1959, and regional conferences were held afterwards.[39]: 176
The Australian government officially sought to shift post-war economic development more towards the benefit of the local population. Most development was agricultural, with an expansion of smallholding and a focus on facilitating exports. While clear economic objectives emerged, political aims less certain, with independence and becoming an Australian state both seen as possible futures.[34]: 303–305 The 1960s and 1970s saw significant social changes as more of the population began to participate in the formal economy, leading to the development of a more local bureaucracy. Alongside this, Australian administrators promoted a shared national identity.[30]: 57 The national philosophy that developed among political leaders, "The Melanesian Way", advocated for an egalitarian and communal leadership reflecting consensual decision making.[35]: 211–213
The re-establishment of Australian administration following the war was followed by an expansion of that control. Territorial control over the highland areas was highly limited prior to this. Regular access did not occur until the 1950s. By 1970, 170,000 hectares (420,000 acres) was still officially regarded as uncontrolled.[40][34]: 303 The administration of the highlands led to a large expansion of coffee cultivation in the region.[34]: 303
Village council powers were expanded in 1963, and ward councils were made possible for village councils with large populations.[39]: 175–176 The first election, held in 1964, and the subsequent 1968 election, took place alongside political campaigns to introduce the political system to people in the territory.[41]: 107 In 1964, the Council was replaced by the 64-member House of Assembly of Papua and New Guinea,[36] which for the first time had a majority of Papua New Guinean members. The Assembly increased to 84 members in 1967 and 100 by 1972.[42] The leadup to the 1968 election saw the formation of Pangu Pati, the first political party.[34]: 306
Mining exploration by Rio Tinto in Bougainville began in 1964. This faced resistance from local landowners, however the Bougainville Copper corporation was established and began to operate a large mine. Resistance became interlinked with a desire for greater autonomy.[43] Bougainville was geographically close to the British Solomon Islands, and its people are more culturally linked to those of the Solomon Islands than to others in the territory.[44] However, the mine was seen as crucial for diversifying the economic base of Papua New Guinea from agriculture alone.[34]: 306 An unsuccessful call for a referendum on separation was made by Bougainvilleans in Port Moresby in 1968, and further political efforts led to a provisional district government being established in 1973.[30]: 71–72
Australian Opposition Leader Gough Whitlam visited Papua New Guinea in 1969. In 1970 and 1971, he visited the Tolai people in the Gazelle Peninsula, who were seeking more control. Whitlam made self-rule in the territory an election issue, and called for self-governance as early as 1972.[40] United Nations visiting missions in the early 1970s called for further political education to better explain the meaning of self-governance and of independence. In March 1971 the House of Assembly recommended that the territory seek self-governance in the next parliament, which was agreed to by Australia.[41]: 110–111 Political education campaigns at the time increased emphasis on the idea of national unity.[41]: 112
Following the time of Whitlam's first visit, political debate significantly intensified. This accompanied social change, such as an increase in education, symbolised by the first students graduating from the University of Papua New Guinea in 1970.[34]: 306 District authorities (which would become provincial authorities) were established in 1970, helping develop provincial identity.[39]: 176–177 At the 1972 Papua New Guinean general election in July, Michael Somare was elected as Chief Minister.[36][45]: 17 Somare sought a better relationship with regional movements, negotiating to meet local needs rather than viewing such movements as an obstacle to a united independent state. His government announced specific plans to decentralise, and improve local self-sustainability. While these actions increased the number of local groups, they also decreased their salience and encouraged them to join the national political system.[30]: 75–77 1972 also saw a new economic strategy delivered to the government that recommended the indigenisation of the economy, an approach and rhetoric adopted by the Somare government.[34]: 307–310 In December, Whitlam was elected as Prime Minister at the 1972 Australian federal election. The Whitlam Government then instituted self-governance in late 1973.[40]
In addition to Bougainville, other regional movements emerged prior to independence. The Papua Besena party sought to separate the territory of Papua from New Guinea. While the party symbolically declared independence prior to national independence, they later went on to participate in Papua New Guinean politics. The Highlands Liberation Front sought to prevent dominance of highland areas from the coast as well as from foreigners, although it sought more autonomy and representation rather than outright independence, and disappeared after independence. Smaller groups emerged in various areas to advocate for the creation of new provinces.[30]: 72–74 The appearance of such groups was likely a combination of new ideas about politics, combined with little need for a united nationalist movement given the Australian agreement to independence.[30]: 92
Over the next two years, further arguments for independence were forwarded, culminating in the Whitlam Government passing the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975 in September 1975, citing the 16th of September 1975 as the date of independence.
Whitlam and then-Prince Charles attended the independence ceremony, with Somare continuing as the country's first Prime Minister.[36]
Independence
Upon independence, most Australian officials, including agricultural, economic, educational, and medicinal staff, left the territory. Very little training had been provided to their successors.[40] This led to a restructuring and a loss of efficiency, particularly in serving rural areas.[45]: 18 At the same time as PNG became independent, the government of Bougainville symbolically declared independence.[36][30]: 72 The voting system was changed to first past the post, as an unsuccessful attempt to encourage the development of a two-party system with clearly defined political parties.[46]: 3 Elected provincial governments were created in 1976, including for Bougainville.[46]: 10 National governments changed through constitutional means. Somare retained the prime ministership following the 1977 election, and was ousted through a vote of no confidence in 1980. He became prime minister again following the 1982 election, but lost another vote of no confidence in 1985.[45]: 18
The issue of Bougainville persisted past independence, with profits from the mine seeing as being of more a benefit to the national government than the people of Bougainville.[44] Bougainville had been the primary mining region of the country, at one point generating almost 50% of exports and 20% of national revenue.[45]: 24 [47]: 263 A secessionist movement in 1975–76 on Bougainville Island resulted in a modification of the Constitution of Papua New Guinea, with the Organic Law on Provincial Government legally devolving power to the 19 provinces. The actual devolution happened on different timescales for each province, which had greatly varying capacities.[45]: 26 [39]: 179 Bougainville was the first, with a formal provincial government established in 1976.[30]: 72 Some provincial governments were suspended in the 1980s, due to financial mismanagement. Somare's proposal to reduce provincial power brought further threats of secession from some of the country's island provinces.[45]: 27 [39]: 189 [47]: 257
While warfare significantly decreased under Australian governance, Tribal fighting in the highland areas increased in the 1970s. These areas had been under outside control for less time, meaning former tribal conflict was still remembered and restarted upon independence. The first state of emergency there was declared in 1979, although it and similar interventions did not quell the violence. Unemployment and imbalanced gender ratios in cities meant tribal fighting morphed into the emergence of gangs. Gang violence led to a state of emergency in Port Moresby in 1984, which led to the intervention of defence forces. This was effective, and led to further police and military interventions elsewhere. Both the police and military became more politicised, and less disciplined. Demand for private security increased as a response, and foreign investment was deterred.[46]: 8–9 [45]: 29, 32 [48]: 239–241 [47]: 260–261, 264, 270
In 1987, proposals were made to increase the election deposit required of political candidates tenfold, from K100 to K1000, in an attempt to reduce the growing number of candidates. Initially blocked by the judiciary, it past legislatively before the 1992 election, although the number of candidates continued to increase.[46]: 5
In 1991, the period in which a government could not face a no confidence vote was increased from 6 months to 18 months.[46]: 5 In 1993, Manus Province switched from first past the post to preferential voting.[46]: 7
In 1995, provincial governments were reformed, becoming made up of relevant national MPs and a number of appointed members. This followed frequent tensions emerging between elected provincial governments and national MPs from those provinces. Some of their responsibilities were devolved towards local governments, a factor that caused significant controversy due to an expected lack of capacity at this level. This lack of capacity has meant that national MPs gained significant powers at the local level. A 2000 legal seminar found that all provincial and local governments had been functioning illegally since 1997.[46]: 11 [39]: 174
The employment needs of the Bougainville mine decreased after construction was completed, leading younger individuals receiving little benefit from the presence of the mine. A renewed uprising on Bougainville started in 1988, fighting against both the Bougainville government and the national government. After the mine closed in May 1989, and the national government pulled out in 1990 and blockaded the province, the conflict shifted into a complex internal civil war. National security forces re-entered the island at the end of 1990, and together with local allies slowly gained more control.[44][47]: 266–267 An agreement between the government and rebels was reached in October 1994, and in 1995 a transitional Bougainville government is established. In 1997, the Sandline affair over the hiring of mercenaries to intervene in Bougainville brought down the national government. Following New Zealand-mediated peace talks, a ceasefire was reached in January 1998.[36][46]: 12 Around 20,000 are thought to have died before the conflict came to an end.[49] The ceasefire also saw that Bougainville would establish a representative government and would not be subject to 1995 national legislation relating to provincial and local governments. The Bougainville People's Congress was formed to represent the province, however, disputes over the suspension of the previous government led to a compromise in the formation of the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government.[46]: 12–13
The first decade of independence saw slow but steady economic growth. The Ok Tedi Mine opened in 1982. While Australian contribution to the budget dropped from 40% of government revenue in 1975 to 17% in 1988, improved taxation allowed for government expenditure to be maintained.[34]: 312–313 The closure of the Bougainville mine led to issues with government finances, however an expansion of exports of oil, minerals, and forestry products led to economic recovery in the early 1990s. This growth did not decrease inequality however, and government services declined.[47]: 263–264 This economic decline both caused and was exacerbated by increases in violence. Local violence damaged infrastructure, and defence expenditure increased. In 1986 the public services lost a significant degree of independence, leading to their becoming more politicised. Increasing government expense and resulting rising debt led to significant economic trouble. The Papua New Guinean kina was devalued and put on a floating exchange rate in 1994, and the country obtained an emergency loan from the World Bank in 1995.[34]: 313–314
In the 1997 election, 73% of all candidates were independent, including 33% of winning candidates, reflecting a steady shift from party politics. The 2372 total candidates meant there was an average of 22 contestants per constituency, with Oro Province having the most, with 61 candidates. Only 4 candidates achieved overall majorities, with 95 (87%) of winners receiving less than 30% of the vote, and 16 (14%) receiving less than 10%. Of the 109 MPs elected, only 2 were women. Somare commented that this meant the parliament did not have much mandate, having been rejected by 80.20% of the population. After government changed mid-parliament in 1999, a Constitutional Development Commission was established to bring about political reform. The resulting Organic Law on the Integrity of Political Parties and Candidates created public funding for registered parties based on their elected members of parliament, incentivised the selection of women candidates, and instituted punishments for party hopping. It also barred independent MPs from voting for the prime minister, or from joining coalitions before a prime minister is elected.[46]: 3–7
A peace agreement was signed in 2001, under which Bougainville would gain higher autonomy than other provinces, and it was agreed that an independence referendum would be held in the future.[36][44]
In 2001 an Australian detention centre was established on Manus Island. Australian police were brought to PNG to help train PNG police in 2004. While most leave after a year, this began a long-term Australian police presence in the country.[36]
The first elections for the new autonomous government took place in 2005.[36] The autonomous Bougainville elected Joseph Kabui as president in 2005, who served until he died in 2008. He was succeeded by his deputy John Tabinaman as acting president while an election to fill the unexpired term was organised. James Tanis won that election in December 2008 and served until the inauguration of John Momis, the winner of the 2010 elections.[citation needed]
In 2009, Parliament approved the creation of two additional provinces: Hela Province, consisting of part of the existing Southern Highlands Province, and Jiwaka Province, formed by dividing Western Highlands Province.[50] Jiwaka and Hela officially became separate provinces on 17 May 2012.[51] The declaration of Hela and Jiwaka is a result of the largest liquefied natural gas project in the country that is situated in both provinces.
In 2011, there was a constitutional crisis between the parliament-elect Prime Minister, Peter O'Neill (voted into office by a large majority of MPs), and Somare, who was deemed by the supreme court to retain office. The stand-off between parliament and the Supreme Court continued until the July 2012 national elections, with legislation passed effectively removing the chief justice and subjecting the Supreme Court members to greater control by the legislature, as well as a series of other laws passed, for example limiting the age for a prime minister. The confrontation peaked with the deputy prime minister entering the supreme court during a hearing, escorted by police, ostensibly to arrest the chief justice. There was strong pressure among some MPs to defer the national elections for a further six months to one year, although their powers to do that were highly questionable. The parliament-elect prime minister and other cooler-headed MPs carried the votes for the writs for the new election to be issued slightly late but for the election itself to occur on time, thereby avoiding a continuation of the constitutional crisis.
Peter O'Neill established a rival government to Somare. The crisis was eventually resolved in favour of O'Neill.[36] Peter O'Neill emerged as Papua New Guinea's prime minister after the July 2012 election and formed a government with Leo Dion, the former Governor of East New Britain Province, as deputy prime minister.
In March 2015 the Bougainville Mining Act shifted control over mining from the national government to the Bougainville government. It also stated that minerals belonged to customary landowners rather than the state, giving landowners vetos over future extraction.[44][52]
In May 2019, O'Neill resigned as prime minister and was replaced through a vote of Parliament by James Marape. Marape was a key minister in O'Neill's government, and his defection from the government to the opposition camp finally led to O'Neill's resignation from office.[53] Davis Steven was appointed deputy prime minister, justice Minister and Attorney General.[54]
The government set 23 November 2019[55] as the voting date for a non-binding[56] independence referendum in the Bougainville autonomous region.[57]
As part of the Bougainville peace settlement, a non-binding independence referendum was held, between 23 November and 7 December 2019. The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea and full independence for Bougainville, and voters voted overwhelmingly (98.31%) for independence.[58] In December 2019, the autonomous region voted overwhelmingly for independence, with 97.7% voting in favour of obtaining full independence and around 1.7% voting in favour of greater autonomy.[59] Negotiations between the Bougainville government and national Papua New Guinea on a path to Bougainville independence began after the referendum, and are ongoing.
After an election widely criticised by observers for its inadequate preparation (including failure to update the electoral roll), abuses and violence, in July 2022, Prime Minister James Marape's PANGU Party secured the most seats of any party in the election, enabling James Marape to be invited to form a coalition government, which he succeeded in doing and he continued as PNG's Prime Minister.[60] In the 2022 Election two women were elected into the eleventh Parliament, one, Rufina Peter, also became Provincial governor of Central Province.[61]
Remove ads
Geography
Summarize
Perspective
.svg)
At 462,840 km2 (178,704 sq mi), Papua New Guinea is the third-largest island country.[62] Papua New Guinea is part of the Australasian realm, which also includes Australia, New Zealand, eastern Indonesia, and several Pacific island groups, including the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Including all its islands, it lies between latitudes 0° and 12°S, and longitudes 140° and 160°E. It has an exclusive economic zone of 2,402,288 km2 (927,529 sq mi). The mainland of the country is the eastern half of New Guinea island, where the largest towns are also located, including Port Moresby (capital) and Lae; other major islands within Papua New Guinea include New Ireland, New Britain, Manus and Bougainville.
Located north of the Australian mainland, the country's geography is diverse and, in places, extremely rugged. A spine of mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, runs the length of the island of New Guinea, forming a populous highlands region mostly covered with tropical rainforest, and the long Papuan Peninsula, known as the 'Bird's Tail'. Dense rainforests can be found in the lowland and coastal areas as well as very large wetland areas surrounding the Sepik and Fly rivers.[citation needed] The highest peak is Mount Wilhelm at 4,509 metres (14,793 ft). Papua New Guinea is surrounded by coral reefs which are under close watch, in the interests of preservation. Papua New Guinea's largest rivers are in New Guinea and include Sepik, Ramu, Markham, Musa, Purari, Kikori, Turama, Wawoi and Fly.
The country is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the point of collision of several tectonic plates. Geologically, the island of New Guinea is a northern extension of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate, forming part of a single land mass which is Australia-New Guinea (also called Sahul or Meganesia). It is connected to the Australian segment by a shallow continental shelf across the Torres Strait, which in former ages lay exposed as a land bridge, particularly during ice ages when sea levels were lower than at present. As the Indo-Australian Plate (which includes landmasses of India, Australia, and the Indian Ocean floor in between) drifts north, it collides with the Eurasian Plate. The collision of the two plates pushed up the Himalayas, the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial glaciers.
There are several active volcanoes, and eruptions are frequent. Papua New Guinea is one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland.
The country shares a land border with Indonesia, and maritime borders with Australia, the Solomon Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia.[47]: 254 The border between Papua New Guinea and Indonesia was confirmed by a treaty with Australia before independence in 1974. The land border comprises a segment of the 141° E meridian from the north coast southwards to where it meets the Fly River flowing east, then a short curve of the river's thalweg to where it meets the 141°01'10" E meridian flowing west, then southwards to the south coast.[63][non-primary source needed] The 141° E meridian formed the entire eastern boundary of Dutch New Guinea according to its 1828 annexation proclamation.[64]: 2 [non-primary source needed] By the Treaty of The Hague (1895) the Dutch and British agreed to a territorial exchange, bringing the entire left bank of the Fly River into British New Guinea and moving the southern border east to the Torasi Estuary.[64]: 124 [non-primary source needed] The maritime boundary with Australia was confirmed by a treaty in 1978.[65][non-primary source needed] In the Torres Strait it runs close to the mainland of New Guinea, keeping the adjacent North Western Torres Strait Islands (Dauan, Boigu and Saibai) under Australian sovereignty. Maritime boundaries with the Solomon Islands were confirmed by a 1989 treaty.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are relatively common, sometimes accompanied by tsunamis.[citation needed] Papua New Guinea is famous for its frequent seismic activity, being on the Ring of Fire. On 17 July 1998, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck north of Aitape. It triggered a 50-foot-high tsunami, which killed over 2,180 people in one of the worst natural disasters in the country.
In September 2002, a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck off the coast of Wewak, Sandaun Province, killing six people.[66]
On 25 February 2018, an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 and depth of 35 kilometres struck the middle of Papua New Guinea.[67] The worst of the damage was centred around the Southern Highlands region.[68]
From March to April 2018, a chain of earthquakes hit Hela Province, causing widespread landslides and the deaths of 200 people. Various nations from Oceania and Southeast Asia immediately sent aid to the country.[69][70]
Another severe earthquake occurred on 11 September 2022, killing seven people and causing damaging shaking in some of the country's largest cities, such as Lae and Madang, it was also felt in the capital Port Moresby.[71]
On May 24, 2024, a landslide hit the village of Kaokalam in Enga Province, about 600 kilometers (372 miles) northwest of the capital, Port Moresby, at about 3 a.m. local time. The landslide buried more than 2000 people alive, caused major destruction to buildings, and food gardens and caused major impact on the economic lifeline of the country. The casualty figure surpasses the 2006 Southern Leyte mudslide tragedy where a total of 1,126 people lost their lives as the debris flow from a landslide followed 10 days of heavy rain. With over 2,000 reported dead by the Papua New Guinea government, this disaster has now emerged as the deadliest landslide of the 21st century.[citation needed]
Climate
The climate on the island is essentially tropical, but it varies by region. The maximum mean temperature in the lowlands is 30 to 32 °C, and the minimum 23–24 °C. In the highlands above 2100 metres, colder conditions prevail and night frosts are common there, while the daytime temperature exceeds 22 °C, regardless of the season.[72]
Biodiversity
.jpg)
Many species of birds and mammals found on New Guinea have close genetic links with corresponding species found in Australia. One notable feature in common for the two landmasses is the existence of several species of marsupial mammals, including some kangaroos and possums, which are not found elsewhere. Papua New Guinea is a megadiverse country.
Many of the other islands within PNG territory, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, the Admiralty Islands, the Trobriand Islands, and the Louisiade Archipelago, were never linked to New Guinea by land bridges. As a consequence, they have their own flora and fauna; in particular, they lack many of the land mammals and flightless birds that are common to New Guinea and Australia.
The country is believed to be the home of many undocumented species of plants and animals.[73]
Australia and New Guinea are portions of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which started to break into smaller continents in the Cretaceous period, 65–130 million years ago. Australia finally broke free from Antarctica about 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to the Antarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the coniferous podocarps and Araucaria pines, and the broad-leafed southern beech (Nothofagus). These plant families are still present in Papua New Guinea. New Guinea is part of the humid tropics, and many Indomalayan rainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. New Guinea has been identified as the world's most floristically diverse island in the world, with 13,634 known species of vascular plants.[74]
Papua New Guinea includes several terrestrial ecoregions:
- Admiralty Islands lowland rain forests – forested islands to the north of the mainland, home to a distinct flora.
- Central Range montane rain forests
Green tropical rainforest of Papua New Guinea bears a sharp contrast to nearby arid Australia. - Huon Peninsula montane rain forests
- Louisiade Archipelago rain forests
- New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain forests
- New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests
- New Guinea mangroves
- Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests
- Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
- Solomon Islands rain forests (includes Bougainville Island and Buka)
- Southeastern Papuan rain forests
- Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests
- Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests
- Trobriand Islands rain forests
- Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands
- Central Range sub-alpine grasslands
Three new species of mammals were discovered in the forests of Papua New Guinea by an Australian-led expedition in the early 2010s. A small wallaby, a large-eared mouse and a shrew-like marsupial were discovered. The expedition was also successful in capturing photographs and video footage of some other rare animals such as the Tenkile tree kangaroo and the Weimang tree kangaroo.[75] Nearly one-quarter of Papua New Guinea's rainforests were damaged or destroyed between 1972 and 2002.[76] Mangrove swamps stretch along the coast, and in the inland it is inhabited by nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), and deeper in the inland the sago palm tree inhabits areas in the valleys of larger rivers. Trees such as oaks, red cedars, pines, and beeches are becoming predominant in the uplands above 3,300 feet. Papua New Guinea is rich in various species of reptiles, indigenous freshwater fish and birds, but it is almost devoid of large mammals.[72]
Remove ads
Government and politics
Summarize
Perspective
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
Papua New Guinea is a member of the Commonwealth realm with Charles III as king. The monarch's representative is the governor-general of Papua New Guinea, who is elected by the unicameral National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands are the only realms in which the governor-general is elected by parliament; the governor-general is still formally appointed by the monarch per parliamentary vote.
The Constitution of Papua New Guinea provides for the executive to be responsible to parliament as the representative of the Papua New Guinean people. The National Parliament elects the prime minister of Papua New Guinea, while the other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the prime minister's advice and form the National Executive Council of Papua New Guinea, which acts as the country's cabinet. The National Parliament has 111 seats, of which 22 are occupied by the governors of the 22 provinces and the National Capital District. Candidates for members of parliament are voted upon when the prime minister asks the governor-general to call a national election, a maximum of five years after the previous national election.
In the early years of independence, the instability of the party system led to frequent votes of no confidence in parliament, with resulting changes of the government, but with referral to the electorate through national elections only occurring every five years. Recently, successive governments have passed legislation preventing such votes sooner than 18 months after a national election and within 12 months of the next election. In 2012, the first two (of three) readings were passed to prevent votes of no confidence occurring within the first 30 months. This restriction on votes of no confidence has arguably resulted in greater stability, although perhaps at the cost of reducing the accountability of the executive branch of government.
Elections in PNG attract numerous candidates. After independence in 1975, members were elected by the first-past-the-post system, with winners frequently gaining less than 15% of the vote. Electoral reforms in 2001 introduced the Limited Preferential Vote system (LPV), a version of the alternative vote. The 2007 general election was the first to be conducted using LPV.
While political parties exist, they are not ideologically differentiated. Instead they generally reflect the alliances made between their members, and have little relevance outside of elections. All governments since 1972 have been coalitions, and the number of independent candidates that run has increased. Having no party makes it easier for winning politicians to negotiate with those trying to establish a majority coalition. When formed, such coalitions are unstable due to the potential for party hopping.[46]: 3 Support bases are usually personal or geographical. Even when parties do emerge, they are often strong in specific regions.[77]: 45 From independence until at least 2004, there was at least one change of government within each parliamentary period.[46]: 4 Multiple prime ministers have pre-emptively resigned to try and engineer reselection or adjourned parliament in order to avoid votes of no confidence.[46]: 5
The political culture is influenced by existing kinship and village ties, with communalism an important cultural factor given the many small and fragmented communities.[77]: 38–40 Regional and local identities are strong, and traditional politics has integrated with the modern political system.[77]: 46 However, outside of Bougainville, regional politics are autonomist rather than separatist, with separatism often used as rhetoric rather than as an ultimate goal.[30]: 71
Voting often occurs along tribal lines,[78] an issue exacerbated by politicians who might be able to win off the small vote share provided by a unified tribe. Politicians have been prevented from campaigning in tribes with a rival candidate, and candidates are sometimes put up by opponents to split a different tribe's vote.[46]: 5 Large numbers of independent candidates means that winners are often elected on very small pluralities, including winning less than 10% of votes. Such results raise concerns about the mandates provided by elections.[46]: 4–5 In every election prior to at least 2004, the majority of incumbents lost their seats. This has created an incentive for newly elected politicians to seek as much personal advantage as possible within their term.[46]: 4 Each MP controls Rural Development Funds for their constituency, providing easy opportunities for corruption.[46]: 10 This has generated significant cynicism, and reduced the perceived legitimacy of the national government.[34]: 318
The Organic Law on the Integrity of Political Parties and Candidates, which passed in December 2000, incentivised the formation of political parties and barred independent MPs from electing the prime minister.[46]: 6–7
Under a 2002 amendment, the leader of the party, who wins the largest number of seats in the election, is invited by the governor-general to form the government if they can muster the necessary majority in parliament. Forming such a coalition in PNG, where parties do not have much ideology, involves considerable "horse-trading" right up until the last moment.
Government infrastructure, including schools and airstrips, often lead to demands for compensation from local communities, impeding development and creating local tensions.[46]: 10 [34]: 320–321
Administrative divisions
Papua New Guinea is divided into four regions, which are not the primary administrative divisions but are significant in many aspects of government, commercial, sporting, and other activities. The nation has 22 province-level divisions: twenty provinces, the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and the National Capital District. Each province is divided into one or more districts, which in turn are divided into one or more Local-Level Government areas. Provinces[note 2] are the primary administrative divisions of the country. Provincial governments are branches of the national government, and Papua New Guinea is not a federation of provinces. The province-level divisions are as follows:
_2012.png) |
Foreign relations
Papua New Guinea has sought to maintain good relations with its neighbours Australia, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, while also building links to Asian countries to the north. Relations with Australia have been strained by changes to aid. Regional conflicts have complicated relations with the Solomon Islands and Indonesia, due to the Bougainville conflict and the Papua conflict respectively. In 1986, Papua New Guinea became a founding member of the Melanesian Spearhead Group alongside the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, and the three signed a formal cooperation agreement in 1988. A cooperation treaty was signed with Indonesia in 1986, and Australia in 1987.[46]: 14–15 [47]: 258–259
Papua New Guinea has been an observer state in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1976, followed later by special observer status in 1981.[citation needed]. It has filed its application for full membership status.[79] Papua New Guinea is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement,[47]: 258–259 the Commonwealth of Nations,[80] the Pacific Community, the Pacific Islands Forum,[81] and the United Nations. It is also a member of APEC and an ACP country associated with the European Union.
Papua New Guinea has been a member of the Forum of Small States (FOSS) since the group's founding in 1992.[82][page needed]
Papua New Guinea has provided support to Indonesia's control of Western New Guinea,[83] the focus of the Papua conflict where numerous human rights violations have reportedly been committed by the Indonesian security forces.[84][85][86] Those living in communities near the border are able to cross it for customary purposes.[45]: 33
Papua New Guinea is part of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) forum.[87][non-primary source needed]
Military
The Papua New Guinea Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Papua New Guinea. It consists of three wings.[88][page needed] Its primary role is internal security, although it also patrols the border with Indonesia and the country's exclusive economic zone.[48]: 238–239 The Land Element has seven units: the Royal Pacific Islands Regiment, a special forces unit, a battalion of engineers, three other small units primarily dealing with signals and health, and a military academy. The Air Element consists of one aircraft squadron, which transports the other military wings. The Maritime Element consists of four Pacific-class patrol boats, three ex-Australian Balikpapan-class landing craft, and one Guardian-class patrol boat. One of the landing craft is used as a training ship. Three more Guardian-class patrol boats are under construction in Australia to replace the old Pacific-class vessels. The main tasks of the Maritime Element are to patrol inshore waters and to transport the Land Element. Because of its extensive coastline, Papua New Guinea has a very large exclusive economic zone. The Maritime Element relies heavily on satellite imagery to surveil the country's waters. Patrolling is generally ineffective because underfunding often leaves the patrol boats unserviceable. This problem will be partially corrected when the larger Guardian-class patrol boats enter service.
Law
The unicameral Parliament enacts legislation like in other Commonwealth realms that use the Westminster system of government. The cabinet collectively agrees on government policy, and then the relevant minister introduces bills to Parliament, depending on which government department is responsible for implementing a particular law. Backbench members of parliament can also introduce bills. Parliament debates bills (section 110.1 of the Constitution), which become enacted laws when the Speaker certifies that Parliament has passed them. There is no Royal assent.
All ordinary statutes enacted by Parliament must be consistent with the Constitution. The courts have jurisdiction to rule on the constitutionality of statutes, both in disputes before them and on a reference where there is no dispute but only an abstract question of law. Unusually among developing countries, the judicial branch of government in Papua New Guinea has remained remarkably independent, and successive executive governments have continued to respect its authority.
The "underlying law" (Papua New Guinea's common law) consists of principles and rules of common law and equity in English[89][non-primary source needed] common law as it stood on 16 September 1975 (the date of independence), and thereafter the decisions of PNG's own courts. The Constitution directs the courts and, latterly, the Underlying Law Act to take note of the "custom" of traditional communities. They are to determine which customs are common to the whole country and may also be declared to be part of the underlying law. In practice, this has proved difficult and has been largely neglected. Statutes are largely adapted from overseas jurisdictions, primarily Australia and England. Advocacy in the courts follows the adversarial pattern of other common-law countries. This national court system, used in towns and cities, is supported by a village court system in the more remote areas. The law underpinning the village courts is 'customary law'.
Crime and human rights
.jpg)
Papua New Guinea is considered to have one of the highest rates of violence against women in the world.[90][91] A 2013 study found that 27% of men on Bougainville Island reported having raped a non-partner, while 14.1% reported having committed gang rape.[92] According to UNICEF, nearly half of reported rape victims are under 15 years old, and 13% are under 7 years old.[93] Former Parliamentarian Carol Kidu stated that 50% of those seeking medical help after rape are under 16, 25% are under 12, and 10% are under 8.[94] Under Dame Carol's term as Minister for Community Development, Parliament passed the Family Protection Act (2013) and the Lukautim Pikini Act (2015), although the Family Protection Regulation was not approved until 2017, delaying its application in the Courts.[95][failed verification] Changing views on violence being a normal part of relationships is a key part of efforts to decrease such violence.[96]
The 1971 Sorcery Act allowed for accusations of sorcery to act as a defence for murder until the act was repealed in 2013.[97] An estimated 50–150 alleged witches are killed each year in Papua New Guinea.[98] A Sorcery and Witchcraft Accusation Related National Action Plan was approved by the Government in 2015,[99] although funding and application has been deficient.[citation needed] There are also no protections given to LGBT citizens in the country.[citation needed] Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Papua New Guinea.[100]
While tribal violence has long been a way of life in the highlands regions, an increase in firearms has led to greater loss of life. In the past, rival groups had been known to utilise axes, bush knives and traditional weapons, as well as respecting rules of engagement that prevented violence while hunting or at markets. These norms have been changing with a greater uptake of firearms. These are believed to be losses from government armouries,[101] as well as sourced from smuggling operations over the border into Indonesia.[78] Only 1/5th of 5000 Australian-made Self Loading Rifles[citation needed] and half of the 2000 M16s delivered to the PNGDF from the 1970s-1990s were found in government armouries during an audit in 2004 and 2005.[101] The smuggling and theft of ammunition have also increased violence in these regions. The police forces and military find it difficult to maintain control. Village massacres have increased with 69 villagers killed in a single attack in February 2024 in Enga Province.[102]
Papua New Guinea received a score of 5.6 out of 10 for safety from the state from the Human Rights Measurement Initiative.[103]
Royal PNG Constabulary
The Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary has been troubled in recent years by infighting, political interference and corruption. It was recognised from early after Independence (and hitherto) that a national police force alone could never have the capacity to administer law and order across the country, and that it would also require effective local-level systems of policing and enforcement, notably the village court magisterial service.[104][page needed] The weaknesses of police capacity, poor working conditions and recommendations to address them were the subject of the 2004 Royal PNG Constabulary Administrative Review to the Minister for Internal Security.[105] In 2011, Commissioner for Police Anthony Wagambie took the unusual step of asking the public to report police asking for payments for performing their duties.[106]
In September 2020, Minister for Police Bryan Jared Kramer launched a broadside on Facebook against his own police department, which was subsequently reported in the international media. In the post, Kramer accused the Royal PNG Constabulary of widespread corruption, claiming that "Senior officers based in Police Headquarters in Port Moresby were stealing from their own retired officers’ pension funds. They were implicated in organised crime, drug syndicates, smuggling firearms, stealing fuel, insurance scams, and even misusing police allowances. They misused tens of millions of kina allocated for police housing, resources, and welfare. We also uncovered many cases of senior officers facilitating the theft of Police land." Commissioner for Police David Manning, in a separate statement, said that his force included "criminals in uniform".[107][108]
Remove ads
Economy
Summarize
Perspective
Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, including mineral and renewable resources, such as forests, marine resources (including a large portion of the world's major tuna stocks), and in some parts agriculture. The rugged terrain (including high mountain ranges and valleys, swamps and islands) and the high cost of developing infrastructure, combined with other factors (including law and order problems in some centres and the system of customary land title) make it difficult for outside developers. Local developers are hindered by years of deficient investment in education, health, and access to finance. Agriculture, for subsistence and cash crops, provides a livelihood for 85% of the population and continues to provide some 30% of GDP. Mineral deposits, including gold, oil, and copper, account for 72% of export earnings. Oil palm production has grown steadily over recent years (largely from estates and with extensive outgrower output), with palm oil now the main agricultural export. Coffee remains the major export crop (produced largely in the Highlands provinces); followed by cocoa and coconut oil/copra from the coastal areas, each largely produced by smallholders; tea, produced on estates; and rubber.[citation needed] The Iagifu/Hedinia Field was discovered in 1986 in the Papuan fold and thrust belt.[109]: 471
Former Prime Minister Sir Mekere Morauta tried to restore integrity to state institutions, stabilise the kina, restore stability to the national budget, privatise public enterprises where appropriate, and ensure ongoing peace on Bougainville following the 1997 agreement which ended Bougainville's secessionist unrest. The Morauta government had considerable success in attracting international support, specifically gaining the backing of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in securing development assistance loans.
The country's terrain has made it difficult for the country to develop transportation infrastructure, resulting in air travel being the most efficient and reliable means of transportation. There are five highways, although only two go into the interior. Domestic shipping is limited.[110]
Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund;[111] nearly 40% of the population are subsistence farmers, living relatively independently of the cash economy.[112] Their traditional social groupings are explicitly acknowledged by the Papua New Guinea Constitution, which expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society"[113] and protects their continuing importance to local and national community life.
As of 2019, PNG's real GDP growth rate was 3.8%, with an inflation rate of 4.3%[114] This economic growth has been primarily attributed to strong commodity prices, particularly mineral but also agricultural, with the high demand for mineral products largely sustained even during the crisis by the buoyant Asian markets, a booming mining sector and by a buoyant outlook and the construction phase for natural gas exploration, production, and exportation in liquefied form (liquefied natural gas or "LNG") by LNG tankers, all of which will require multibillion-dollar investments (exploration, production wells, pipelines, storage, liquefaction plants, port terminals, LNG tanker ships).
The first major gas project was the PNG LNG joint venture. ExxonMobil is operator of the joint venture, also comprising PNG company Oil Search, Santos, Kumul Petroleum Holdings (Papua New Guinea's national oil and gas company), JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration, the PNG government's Mineral Resources Development Company and Petromin PNG Holdings. The project is an integrated development that includes gas production and processing facilities in the Hela, Southern Highlands and Western Provinces of Papua New Guinea, including liquefaction and storage facilities (located northwest of Port Moresby) with capacity of 6.9 million tonnes per year. There are over 700 kilometres (430 mi) of pipelines connecting the facilities.[115][non-primary source needed] It is the largest private-sector investment in the history of PNG.[116] A second major project is based on initial rights held by the French oil and gas major TotalEnergies and the U.S. company InterOil Corp. (IOC), which have partly combined their assets after TotalEnergies agreed in December 2013 to purchase 61.3% of IOC's Antelope and Elk gas field rights, with the plan to develop them starting in 2016, including the construction of a liquefaction plant to allow export of LNG. TotalEnergies has separately another joint operating agreement with Oil Search.
Further gas and mineral projects are proposed (including the large Wafi-Golpu copper-gold mine), with extensive exploration ongoing across the country.[117][failed verification]
The PNG government's long-term Vision 2050 and shorter-term policy documents, including the 2013 Budget and the 2014 Responsible Sustainable Development Strategy, emphasise the need for a more diverse economy, based upon sustainable industries and avoiding the effects of Dutch disease from major resource extraction projects undermining other industries. This occurred in many countries experiencing oil or other mineral booms, notably in Western Africa, undermining much of their agriculture sector, manufacturing and tourism, and with them broad-based employment prospects. Measures have been taken to mitigate these effects, including through the establishment of a sovereign wealth fund, partly to stabilise revenue and expenditure flows, but much will depend upon the readiness to make real reforms to effective use of revenue, tackling rampant corruption and empowering households and businesses to access markets, services and develop a more buoyant economy, with lower costs, especially for small to medium-sized enterprises.[citation needed] Economic 'development' based on the extractive industries also carries difficult consequences for local communities. One major project conducted through the PNG Department for Community Development suggested that other pathways to sustainable development should be considered.[118]
The Institute of National Affairs, a PNG independent policy think tank, provides a report on the business and investment environment of Papua New Guinea every five years, based upon a survey of large and small, local and overseas companies, highlighting law and order problems and corruption, as the worst impediments, followed by the poor state of transport, power and communications infrastructure.[119][120][non-primary source needed]
Land tenure
The PNG legislature has enacted laws in which a type of tenure called "customary land title" is recognised, meaning that the traditional lands of the indigenous peoples have some legal basis for inalienable tenure. This customary land notionally covers most of the usable land in the country (some 97% of total land area);[121] alienated land is either held privately under state lease or is government land. Freehold title (also known as fee simple) can only be held by Papua New Guinean citizens.[122]: 9–13
Only some 3% of the land of Papua New Guinea is in private hands; this is privately held under a 99-year state lease, or it is held by the State. There is virtually no freehold title; the few existing freeholds are automatically converted to state leases when they are transferred between vendor and purchaser. Unalienated land is owned under customary title by traditional landowners. The precise nature of the seisin varies from one culture to another. Many writers portray land as the communal ownership of traditional clans; however, closer studies usually show that the smallest portions of land whose ownership cannot be further divided are held by the individual heads of extended families and their descendants or their descendants alone if they have recently died.[citation needed]
This is a matter of vital importance because a problem of economic development is identifying the membership of customary landowning groups and the owners. Disputes between mining and forestry companies and landowner groups often devolve on the issue of whether the companies entered into contractual relations for the use of land with the true owners. Customary property—usually land—cannot be devised by will. It can only be inherited according to the custom of the deceased's people.[citation needed] The Lands Act was amended in 2010 along with the Land Group Incorporation Act, intended to improve the management of state land, mechanisms for dispute resolution over land, and to enable customary landowners to be better able to access finance and possible partnerships over portions of their land if they seek to develop it for urban or rural economic activities. The Land Group Incorporation Act requires more specific identification of the customary landowners than hitherto and their more specific authorisation before any land arrangements are determined; (a major issue in recent years has been a land grab, using, or rather misusing, the Lease-Leaseback provision under the Land Act, notably using 'Special Agricultural and Business Leases' (SABLs) to acquire vast tracts of customary land, purportedly for agricultural projects, but in almost all cases as a back-door mechanism for securing tropical forest resources for logging—circumventing the more exacting requirements of the Forest Act, for securing Timber Permits (which must comply with sustainability requirements and be competitively secured, and with the customary landowners' approval). Following a national outcry, these SABLs have been subject to a Commission of Inquiry, established in mid-2011, for which the report is still awaited for initial presentation to the Prime Minister and Parliament.[as of?][citation needed]
Gold discovery
Traces of gold were first found in 1852, in pottery from Redscar Bay on the Papuan Peninsula.[123]
Science and technology
Papua New Guinea's National Vision 2050 was adopted in 2009. This has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasised the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology.[124]: 725
Vision 2050's medium-term priorities are:[124]: 725
- emerging industrial technology for downstream processing;
- infrastructure technology for the economic corridors;
- knowledge-based technology;
- science and engineering education; and
- to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in research and development by 2050. (Papua New Guinea invested 0.03% of GDP in research and development in 2016.[125]: 680 )
In 2016, women accounted for 33.2% of researchers in Papua New Guinea.[125]: 123
According to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology.[124]: 704, 726 Nine out of ten were also co-authored by scientists from other countries, mainly Australia, the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Spain and Switzerland.[124]: 702, 706, 726 In 2019 Papua New Guinea produced 253 publications in the Scopus (Elsevier) database of scientific publications.[125]: 684 Health sciences accounted for 49% of these publications.[125]: 685 Papua New Guinea's top scientific collaborators from 2017 to 2019 were Australia, the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France and India.[125]: 686
Forestry is an important economic resource for Papua New Guinea, but the industry uses low and semi-intensive technological inputs. As a result, product ranges are limited to sawed timber, veneer, plywood, block board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few limited finished products are exported. Lack of automated machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing automated machinery and design.[124]: 728
Renewable energy sources represent two-thirds of the total electricity supply.[124]: 726 In 2015, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'.[126] The European Union funded the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC) over 2013 to 2017. The programme developed a master's programme in renewable energy management, accredited in 2016, at the University of Papua New Guinea[125]: 710 and helped to establish a Centre of Renewable Energy at the same university.[124]: 727
Papua New Guinea is one of the 15 beneficiaries of a programme on Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy worth €37.26 million. The programme resulted from the signing of an agreement in February 2014 between the European Union and the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat. The other beneficiaries are the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.[124]: 727
Transport
The country's mountainous terrain impedes transport. Aeroplanes opened up the country during its colonial period and continue to be used for most travel and most high-density/value freight. The capital, Port Moresby, has no road links to any of PNG's other major towns. Similarly, many remote villages are reachable only by light aircraft or on foot.
Jacksons International Airport is the major international airport in Papua New Guinea, located 8 kilometres (5 mi) from Port Moresby. In addition to two international airfields,[citation needed] Papua New Guinea has over 500 airstrips, most of which are unpaved.[3] The national airline is Air Niugini, operating out of Jacksons International.[127][non-primary source needed]
Remove ads
Demographics
Summarize
Perspective
Papua New Guinea is one of the most heterogeneous nations in the world[128]: 205 with an estimated 8.95 million inhabitants as of 2020.[129] Government estimates reported the country's population to be 11.8 million.[130] With the National Census deferred during 2020/2021, ostensibly on the grounds of the COVID-19 pandemic, an interim assessment was conducted using satellite imagery. In December 2022, a report by the UN, based upon a survey conducted with the University of Southampton using satellite imagery and ground-truthing, suggested a new population estimate of 17 million, nearly double the country's official estimate.[131][131][132] Papua New Guinea is the most populous Pacific island country.
There are hundreds of ethnic groups indigenous to Papua New Guinea, the majority being from the group known as Papuans, whose ancestors arrived in the New Guinea region tens of thousands of years ago. The other indigenous peoples are Austronesians, their ancestors having arrived in the region less than four thousand years ago.
Papua New Guinea is one of the most rural countries, with only 13.25% of its population living in urban centres in 2019.[133] Most of its people live in customary communities.[134]
There are also numerous people from other parts of the world now resident, including Chinese,[135] Europeans, Australians, Indonesians, Filipinos, Polynesians, and Micronesians (the last four belonging to the Austronesian family).[citation needed] Around 50,000 expatriates, mostly from Australia and China, were living in Papua New Guinea in 1975, but most of these had moved by the 21st century.[136] As of 2015, about 0.3% of the population was international migrants.[137]
Urbanisation
As of 2018, Papua New Guinea had the second lowest urban population percentage in the world, with 13.2%, only behind Burundi. The projected urbanisation rate from 2015 to 2020 was 2.51%.[138] The geography and economy of Papua New Guinea are the main factors behind low urbanisation.
Immigration
Chinese
Numerous Chinese have worked and lived in Papua New Guinea, establishing Chinese-majority communities.[citation needed] Anti-Chinese rioting involving tens of thousands of people broke out in May 2009. The initial spark was a fight between ethnic Chinese and indigenous workers at a nickel factory under construction by a Chinese company. There is native resentment against Chinese ownership of small businesses and their commercial monopoly in the islands.[139][140]
African
There is a thriving community of Africans who live and work in the country.[citation needed]
Languages
There are 840 known languages of Papua New Guinea (including English), making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world.[5] Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country,[141] with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. With an average of only 7,000 speakers per language, Papua New Guinea has a greater density of languages than any other nation on earth except Vanuatu.[142][143] The most widely spoken indigenous language is Enga, with about 200,000 speakers, followed by Melpa and Huli.[144] Indigenous languages are classified into two large groups, Austronesian languages and non-Austronesian, or Papuan, languages. There are four languages in Papua New Guinea with some statutory recognition: English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu,[note 3] and, since 2015, sign language (which in practice means Papua New Guinean Sign Language).
English is the language of government and the education system, but it is not spoken widely. The primary lingua franca of the country is Tok Pisin (commonly known in English as New Guinean Pidgin or Melanesian Pidgin), in which much of the debate in Parliament is conducted, many information campaigns and advertisements are presented, and a national weekly newspaper, Wantok, is published. The only area where Tok Pisin is not prevalent is the southern region of Papua, where people often use the third official language, Hiri Motu. Although it lies in the Papua region, Port Moresby has a highly diverse population that primarily uses Tok Pisin, and to a lesser extent English, with Motu spoken as the indigenous language in outlying villages.
Religion
 | This section needs to be updated. (April 2025) |
Citizen population in Papua New Guinea by religion, based on the 2011 census[6]
- Catholicism (26%)
- Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea (18.4%)
- Seventh-day Adventist (12.9%)
- Pentecostal (10.4%)
- United Church in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (10.3%)
- Evangelical Alliance Papua New Guinea (5.9%)
- Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea (3.2%)
- Baptist (2.8%)
- Salvation Army (0.4%)
- Kwato Church (0.2%)
- Other Christian (5.1%)
- Non-Christian (1.4%)
- Not stated (3.1%)
The government and judiciary uphold the constitutional right to freedom of speech, thought, and belief, and no legislation to curb those rights has been adopted.[145] The 2011 census found that 95.6% of citizens identified themselves as Christian, 1.4% were not Christian, and 3.1% gave no answer. Virtually no respondent identified as being non-religious. Religious syncretism is high, with many citizens combining their Christian faith with some traditional indigenous religious practices. Most Christians in Papua New Guinea are Protestants, constituting roughly 70% of the total population. They are mostly represented by the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, diverse Pentecostal denominations, the United Church in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, the Evangelical Alliance Papua New Guinea, and the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea. Apart from Protestants, there is a notable Roman Catholic minority with approximately 25% of the population.
Estimates of the number of Muslims in the country range from 1,000 to 5,000. The majority belong to the Sunni group.[146] Non-traditional Christian churches and non-Christian religious groups are active throughout the country. The Papua New Guinea Council of Churches has stated that both Muslim and Confucian missionaries are highly active.[147] Traditional religions are often animist. Some also tend to have elements of veneration of the dead, though generalisation is suspect given the extreme heterogeneity of Melanesian societies. Prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in masalai, or evil spirits, which are blamed for "poisoning" people, causing calamity and death,[148][page needed] and the practice of puripuri (sorcery).[149]
The first Bahá'í in PNG was Violete Hoenke who arrived at Admiralty Island, from Australia, in 1954. The PNG Bahá'í community grew so quickly that in 1969 a National Spiritual Assembly (administrative council) was elected. As of 2020 there are over 30,000 members of the Bahá'í Faith in PNG. In 2012 the decision was made to erect the first Bahá'í House of Worship in PNG. Its design is that of a woven basket, a common feature of all groups and cultures in PNG. It is, therefore, hoped to be a symbol for the entire country. Its nine entrances are inspired by the design of Haus Tambaran (Spirit House). Construction began in Port Moresby in 2018.
Education
A large proportion of the population is illiterate, with women predominating in this area.[150] Much of the education in PNG is provided by church institutions.[151] This includes 500 schools of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea.[152] Papua New Guinea has six universities as well as other tertiary institutions. The two founding universities are the[citation needed] University of Papua New Guinea, based in the National Capital District,[153] and the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, based outside of Lae, in Morobe Province.
The four other universities were once colleges but have since been recognised by the government. These are the University of Goroka in the Eastern Highlands province, Divine Word University (run by the Catholic Church's Divine Word Missionaries) in Madang Province, Vudal University in East New Britain Province, and Pacific Adventist University (run by the Seventh-day Adventist Church) in the National Capital District.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative reports that Papua New Guinea is achieving 68.5% of what should be possible for the right to education, based on their level of income.[154]
Health
As of 2019, life expectancy in Papua New Guinea at birth was 63 years for men and 67 for women.[155] Government expenditure health in 2014 accounted for 9.5% of total government spending, with total health expenditure equating to 4.3% of GDP.[155] There were five physicians per 100,000 people in the early 2000s.[156] The 2008 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Papua New Guinea was 250. This is compared with 270 in 2005 and 340 in 1990. The under-5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 69 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under-5s' mortality is 37. In Papua New Guinea, the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 1 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 94.[157]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Papua New Guinea is achieving 71.9% of what should be possible for the right to health, based on their level of income.[158]
Remove ads
Culture
Summarize
Perspective
It is estimated that more than one thousand cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea. Because of this diversity, many styles of cultural expression have emerged. Each group has created its own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture and much more. Most of these cultural groups have their own language. People typically live in villages that rely on subsistence farming. In some areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such as yam roots and karuka) to supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing earn a great deal of respect.
Seashells were a common currency before 1933. They still retain ceremonial value, for example a bride price may be paid with golden-edged clam shells.[159] In other regions, the bride price is paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash. Elsewhere, it is brides who traditionally pay a dowry.
The culture of traditional Melanesian societies sees small communities led under a "big man". These are often considered to be positions earned through merit and societies are thought to be relatively egalitarian, although at times hereditary influence does play a role, and there are varying social stratifications in addition to differences relating to age and gender. Broadly, highland societies were likely more individualistic than lowland societies.[35]: 207–209
People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called "sing sings." They paint themselves and dress up with feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, is enacted at such a musical festival.
The country possesses one UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Kuk Early Agricultural Site, which was inscribed in 2008.[160] The country, however, has no elements inscribed yet in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, despite having one of the widest arrays of intangible cultural heritage elements in the world.[161][failed verification]
Sport
Sport is an important part of Papua New Guinean culture, and rugby league is by far the most popular sport.[162] In a nation where communities are far apart and many people live at a minimal subsistence level, rugby league has been described as a replacement for tribal warfare as a way of explaining the local enthusiasm for the game. Many Papua New Guineans have become celebrities by representing their country or playing in an overseas professional league. Even Australian rugby league players who have played in the annual State of Origin series, which is celebrated every year in PNG, are among the most well-known people throughout the nation. State of Origin is a highlight of the year for most Papua New Guineans,[citation needed] although the support is so passionate that people have died in violent clashes supporting their team.[163] The Papua New Guinea national rugby league team usually plays against the Australian Prime Minister's XIII (a selection of NRL players) each year, normally in Port Moresby.
Although not as popular, Australian rules football is significant in another way, as the national team is ranked second, only after Australia. Other major sports that have a part in the Papua New Guinea sporting landscape are netball, association football, rugby union, basketball and, in eastern Papua, cricket.
Remove ads
See also
Notes
- abbreviated PNG; /ˈpæp(j)uə ... ˈɡɪni, ˈpɑː-/ ⓘ, also US: /ˈpɑːpwə-, ˈpɑːp(j)ə-/[12]
- The Constitution of Papua New Guinea sets out the names of the 19 provinces at the time of Independence. Several provinces have changed their names; such changes are not strictly speaking official without a formal constitutional amendment, though "Oro," for example, is universally used in reference to that province.
- There is no specific legislation proclaiming official languages in Papua New Guinea. In the constitution of Papua New Guinea, section 2(11) (literacy) of its preamble mentions '...all persons and governmental bodies to endeavour to achieve universal literacy in Pisin, Hiri Motu or English' as well as "tok ples" and "ita eda tano gado." In addition, section 67 (2)(c) mentions "speak and understand Pisin or Hiri Motu, or a vernacular of the country, sufficiently for normal conversational purposes" as a requirement for citizenship by nationalisation; this is again mentioned in section 68(2)(h).
References
Further reading
External links
Wikiwand - on
Seamless Wikipedia browsing. On steroids.
Remove ads