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Pashto grammar
Grammar of the Pashto language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case (direct, oblique, ablative and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms.
In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é.
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Pronouns
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- Note: هغه as a demonstrative pronoun (that) has initial stress [háğa] whereas the personal pronoun (he, she, it) has final stress [hağá].[1]
Personal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Possessive pronouns
There is no plural form with nouns.
Interrogative pronouns
Indefinite
- In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ 'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ 'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ 'something'.
- When هر /har, ar/ 'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone [هر څوک], everything [هر څه], each one [هر یو]
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Nouns
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Case and gender
Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative (also known as oblique II) and vocative. The oblique case is used as prepositional case as well as in the past tense as the subject of transitive verbs (i.e. in ergative construction), and the ablative case is used with certain prepositions and with some numerals.
There are two genders: masculine and feminine. Gender of a noun is indicated by its ending. Animate nouns' gender agrees with biological gender regardless of the ending.[4]
Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as demonstratives. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" – "a hospital".
Class 1
Masculine nouns
Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان -ā́n in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه -úna. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ meṛә́ "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه meṛúna, and پل pul "bridge" is animate — پلان pulā́n.
The nouns ending in -i, -ā (these are always animate) or -u (these can be both animate and inanimate) take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels.
Words ending in -āCә́ pattern (like وادۀ wādә́ "wedding") have short -a- in plural.
Examples
Feminine nouns
Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings.
In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه stә́rga "eye" and لار lār "way" would be سترګې stә́rge and لارې lā́re in the North, but سترګي stә́rgi and لاري lā́ri in the South, while مڼه maṇá "apple" and تخته taxtá "board" would be مڼې maṇé and تختې taxté in both dialect groups.
There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې -yā́ne in the plural) and -ā or -o (they take either ګانې -gā́ne or وې -we). In Southern Pashto they are یاني -yā́ni, ګاني -gā́ni and وي -wi (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns).
Examples
Class 2
In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms.
Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور tanúr "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز paléz "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes.[5]
There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه melma "guest", اسبه asba "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ğoba "(cow) shepherd", کوربه korba "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2.
Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ğar "mountain", ور war "door", ګز gaz "gaz (unit of length)", من man "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ṭağar "rug" take ونه -úna in the plural form (غرونه ğrúna, ورونه warúna/wrúna etc).
Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take (or not take) -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن.
Examples
Class 3
Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e.
Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto.
Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here.
Examples
Uncountable nouns
They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms.
Feminine Examples include اوړه [oṛә́ – flour], اوبه [obә́ -water], پۍ [pə́i – milk] etc.
Example: اوبه – water
Example: پۍ – milk
Masculine Examples include: ږدن [ẓ̌dәn -sorghum], دال [dāl -lentils], شراب [šarā́b – alcohol]
Example: دال – lentils
Irregular nouns
These are limited to nouns denoting kinship.
Feminine – "or" stem These include:
مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/
خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/
ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/
نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/
Example:
Brother and daughter ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural
لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural
Son
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Adjectives
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An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto [ستاينوم]. The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.
Notes:
- In the plural, both obliques and the vocative merge into a single form.
- Singular Oblique I and plural Direct always merge into a single form.
- The above two conditions mean that there can be at most five distinct forms for masculine adjectives (but in fact, no class distinguishes more than four).
- For feminine adjectives, singular Oblique I and Vocative merge, while singular Direct and Oblique II merge; combined with mergers noted previously, there can be at most three distinct forms for feminine adjectives.
- Categories 2 and 3 have stem and stress alternations among different cases. Category 3 has a basic distinction between the masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, with stem stress, and all other forms, with a (sometimes) different stem and with ending stress (e.g. masc. trīx, fem. traxá "bitter"; masc. sūr, fem. srá "red"; masc. sōṛ, fem. saṛá "cold"; fem. raṇā "light" with only one stem). Category 2 has the same stress alternation, but has three distinct stems, with stressed stem vowel 'o' or 'u' in masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, unstressed stem vowel 'ā' in masculine singular Oblique I and plural Direct, and unstressed stem vowel 'a' in all other forms (e.g. masc. sing. pōx, masc. plur. pāxǝ́, fem. paxá "ripe, cooked").
Class 1
Case-marking suffixes
Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.
Stem allomorphy
In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either:
- Vowel harmony
or
- Centralization
In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.
Vowel harmony
Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.
Centralization
Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.
Class I forms with stem allomorphy
Example 1 = سپک (light – in weight)
The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule.
Example 2 = زړور (brave)
The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.
Animacy
When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example:
ex:
مشران وروڼه
Məʃarɑn
wruɳa
'Elder brothers'
Class 2
Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( ه /‑ə́/). Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed) is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.
Case-marking suffixes
Stem allomorphy
Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives (which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:
- Syncope I
- Back vowel lowering
- Monophthongization
- Lengthening
- Syncope II
- Epenthesis
Syncope I
- V2 → Ø/ V́1_
- V́1 → Ø/ _V́2
If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives.
Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/
Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.
Back vowel lowering
- V-stress] [+back, → V[-high]/ C_
Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed.
In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.
Monophthongization
- a[+stress]w → V-high] [+back,
- wa[+stress] → V-high] [+back,
In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem [usually seen in the feminine tense], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed.
Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /tawd/.
Lengthening
- a → ā /_(C)Cə́
Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.
Lengthening
- V[-stress] → Ø
In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed.
Example = سور /sur/ – red
Epenthesis
- Ø → a/C_CC or CC_C
If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.
Class 3
These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.
Case-marking suffixes
Stressed
Unstressed
Stressed
Example = زلمی (young/youth – the ی is stressed)
Unstressed
Example = سوی (burnt- the ی is unstressed)
Class 4
This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction.
But some speakers use the oblique suffixes و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases.
Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing)
Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect)
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Derivational affixes
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Pashto utilities morphological derivation: there is an addition to the base form or stem of a word in order to modify its meaning [not grammatical function like verbal suffixes].
Prefixes
These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones:
A list of examples:
Suffixes
These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones:
A list of examples:
Creating new words
Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes
Example:
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Infinitive
Summarize
Perspective
This is called Kaṛnúmay [کړنومی] in Pashto that is "the name of a verb".[6] It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun.
Example: وکړل [past perfective tense of the transitive verb کول – "to do"] shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.
ex:
هغوی په خپلو کښې وهل وکړل
Hağúi
they:DIR:3:PL
pә
on:PREP
xpә́lo
own:OBL:M:PL
ke
on:POST
wahә́l
to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL
wә́kṛəl
do:PST:PRF:3:PL
They have fought amongst themselves
Double infinitives
These are formed by combining two infinitives
– either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive.
– or by combining two simple infinitives:
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Verb
- Pashto has three tenses: Past, present and future.
- The future tense is the same as present tense with the exception of markers.
- Aspect: Pashto in every tense has perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ][6] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action while the imperfective aspect indicates continuous or habitual action.
- Pashto verbs are of four categories: simple verbs, prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs.
- Prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs are separable.
- Pashto verbs can be conjugated by the bases they have.
- Present and imperative forms are formed on present bases. Past, optative, and infinitive forms are formed on past bases.
- Based on the stems they classed as either single stemmed, two stemmed or multiple stemmed
- Verbs agree in person and in number with either the objects or subjects of sentences, depending on tense and construction.
- Agreement is indicated with verbal suffixes following the verb stem which indicate person and number.
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Verbs: categories
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Perspective
Simple verbs
They are in the morpheme state.
Examples:
Prefixed verbs
These are described below as doubly irregular.
They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.
Deictic prefixed verb
These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.
Non-productive prefixed verbs
Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of.
Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix [پرې] is separated from the verb stem [کول] by a second position clitic [يې]
ex:
پرې يې کړه
pré
cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR
ye
it/he/she:3:WK
kṛá
cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG
Cut it
a-initial verbs
These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/.
Examples:
Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that
they take the prefix و /wə́/ for perfective forms.
ex:
وا
wā́
buy:AOR
مې
me
I:SG:WK
خيستل
xistəl
buy:PST:3PL:M
I bought them
Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress.
Example: initial stress
ex:
ا
á
buy:CONT
مې
me
I:SG:WK
خيستل
xistəl
buy:PST:3PL:M
I was buying them
Example: non-initial stress
ex:
اخيستل
axistə́l
buy:CONT:PST:3PL:M
مې
me
I:SG:WK
I was buying them
Compound verbs
There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.
First category
These are formed by adding ول [-wә́l] and ېدل [edә́l] verbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel.
Example:
Exceptions
There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.
Second category
These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel.
Examples:
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Verbs: conjugation classes
These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above:[7]
- First Conjugation Class: Simple Verbs and A-Initial Verbs
- Second Conjugation Class: Prefixed Verbs
- Third Conjugation Class: Compound Verbs
Verbs: bases
Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb.[7]
Aspect
The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs [prefixed verbs, a-initial and compound verbs] by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement.[7]
Tense
The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives).[7]
For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives).
For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy.
Bases
Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:
1. present perfective
2. present imperfective
3. past perfective
4. past impefective
Inflection
In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:[7]
- a verbal suffix
- an imperative or optative suffix, or
- an adjectival suffix (to form a participle)
Verbs: Single Stems
Summarize
Perspective
These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle.[7] These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.
First Conjugation Class
Transitive
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"
Notes:
- present imperfective base = stem
- present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem
- past imperfective base: stem+ ل /ə́l/ (suffix obligatory)
- past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ل /əl/(suffix obligatory)
Intransitive
Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"
Notes:
- present imperfective base: stem+ ېږ /eg/
- present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ېږ /eg/
- past imperfective base: stem + ېد /ed/ (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
- past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem + ېد /ed/( + ل /əl/— prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
Second Conjugation Class
In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)"
Notes:
- present imperfective base = stem
- present perfective base: stressed prefix + stem
- past imperfective base: prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)
- past perfective base: stressed prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)
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Verbs: Two Stems
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Perspective
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle[7]
These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.
First Conjugation Class
The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:
Or they can be share no similar sounds
Example: the verb لیدل [to see]
In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle:[8]
Notes:
- present imperfective base = present stem
- present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present stem
- past imperfective base: past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
- past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
Second Conjugation Class
As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
Example one: the verb پرېښودل [to leave]
Notes:[8]
- present imperfective base = present stem
- present perfective base: stressed prefix + present stem
- past imperfective base: prefix + past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc.; optional elsewhere)
- past perfective base: stressed prefix + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
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Verbs: Multiple Stems
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Perspective
These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle.[7]
These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables.
These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged:[9]
Examples:
Observation: either three stemmed [ږد, کېږد, کېښود] or four stemmed [یښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود]
Observation: Four stems
Observation: Four Stems
Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور
Observation:Three stems:وړ [wṛ] for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem [as illustrated with پرېوتل above]
Notes:[9]
• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
کول and کېدل
Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete [ṛ] in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech[10]
Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular.[10]
To the verb – to become
Notes[11]:
• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
• Present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present perfective stem
• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• Past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
Verbs: aspect
Summarize
Perspective
Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.
Stress
In both aspects the stress [خج] is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.[12]
First conjugation
First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/. [8] Example:
Second conjugation
These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme.[8]
Example:
Third conjugation
These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:[8]
- shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective
- using the irregular perfective forms of the verbalizer (rather than the forms with و /wə́/).
Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Verbs: verbal suffixes
Summarize
Perspective
Pashto utilises verbal suffixes [د کړ تاړي].
Personal suffixes
Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number.[13]
It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.
Present imperfective tense
Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl [to dance].
Past imperfective tense
Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl [to dance].
Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender.
Example:
- هغوی ګډېدل [They were dancing] – can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing
- هغوی ګډېدې [They were dancing] – implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders [ايجړاګان] by itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.
3rd Person Past Singular Masculine
Generally ه [ə] or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ [əi] is found also.
Plural suffix of وتل watəl
With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:
Verbs: agreement
Summarize
Perspective
Intransitive verbs
As can be seen from the intransitive verb above [ګډېدل] – the verb agrees with the subject.
Agreement – transitive verbs
- Ergative construction is used in the past tense of transitive verbs: the predicate [verb] agrees in person, number and gender with the object. The subject changes to into the oblique case.
- In the present tense the transitive verb agrees with the subject: in person, number and gender.
Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat
Compare:
Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress
Compare:
Compound transitive verbs – split agreement
In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول [to do] agrees with the subject.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.
Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
Verbs: participle
Summarize
Perspective
Present participle
The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay).
Example ليکل [likəˈl] – writer → ليک [lik] past imperfective stem → ليکونکی [likəwúnkay] – writer
Past participle
Past participle suffix
The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.
Present perfect
This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل
Future perfect
Formed by به [future marker] +present perfect
Past perfect
This is formed in the following ways:
Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
Example:
Agreement
- Transitive verbs uses ergative construction: Past participle + verb "to be" agree with object; subject is in oblique case
- Intransitive verbs: Past participle+ verb "to be" agree with the subject
Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل [to ripen, mature]
Verbs: potential construction
Summarize
Perspective
Optative
The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
Present potential
Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:
Past potential
Past potential 1
To indicate:
- Event did not take place: مونږ تېر کال جوار کرلی شوه [We might have been able to plant corn last year]
- Event carried out over extended period of time: مونږ ډرامې ليدلی شوې [We were able to watch TV-shows]
Formed by:
Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
Example:
Past potential 2
To indicate:
- Where the event was actually carried out e.g. تۀ هلته په وخت ورسېدلی شوې؟ [You were able to get there on time]
Formed by:
Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل
Auxiliary: "to be"
Summarize
Perspective
The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.
Present imperfective
Present imperfective tense of "to be":
Present perfective form
Present perfective tense of "to be":
Past form
Past tense of "to be":
Future tense
In Pashto the future tense [ راتلونکی مهال][15] is the same as the present tense [اوسنی مهال][16] with the exception that in the future tense the marker به [bə] is added.
In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used.[17]
Future tense of "to be":
Imperative Form
Also known as Command Form
"Wi" – usage
وي [wi] is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.
Verbs: causative construction
This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" [where do X is the original verb].
Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/.
The causative can either use the present stem or past stem [and sometimes both] – depending on the original verb.
Example:
Verbs: imperative form
Summarize
Perspective
This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:
Number
The two verbal suffixes are employed:
Example:
The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.
Positive command
Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress)
In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.
Intensive
The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:
خوره چې ځو
xwrá če dzú
—Finish eating, so we go.
Compound verbs
Transitive
For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.
Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
Intransitive
For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
Negative command
Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/.
Compare:
Prefixed verbs
North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.
Verbs: phrasal verbs
These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.
Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l
Summarize
Perspective
These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و /wə́/.
Kawə́l
Here are the forms of Kawə́l[18] as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect.[19] She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the
personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.[20]
Kedə́l
Here are the forms of Kedə́l[21] as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".[22]
Future Tense
Summarize
Perspective
The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker"[23] and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.[5]
Future Expression
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.[5]
ex:
پلار به مې ګانده پيسې ولېږي
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
wә́leẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
My father will send money
With Present Imperfective Tense
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below.
- To describe a future reference that is repeated or ongoing:[5]
ex:
پلار به مې پيسې لېږي او زه به خورمه
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
léẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
aw
and
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
xwrә́ma
eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
My father will send money and I will (continue to) eat
- Present Imperfective verb base is also used where future marker like "tomorrow", "next week" etc. is used:[24]
ex:
پلار به مې پيسې ګانده لېږي
plār
father:M:DIR
bә
will:FUT
me
I:1:SG:WK
paisé
money:F:DIR:PL
gā́nda
tomorrow:F:DIR
léẓ̌i
send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
My father will send money tomorrow
- To contrast a future action with another future action:[25]
ex:
ته به ځې زه به پاتې کېږم
tә
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
dzé
go:CONT:PRS:2:SG
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
pāte
behind:F
kéẓ̌әm
become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
You'll be going, I'll be staying.
Negative Future Expressions
Summarize
Perspective
With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.[26]
First Conjugation Class
Simple Verbs
If there is a grammatical subject or object:[27]
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
ex:
مېوه به و نه خوري
mewá
fruit:F:SG:DIR
bә
will:FUT
wә́
eat...:AOR:PRS:3
nə
not:NEG
xwri
...eat:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not eat the fruit
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:[27]
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
ex:
زه به ليک و نه لېږم
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
lik
letter:SG:M:DIR
wә́
send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
nə
not:NEG
léẓ̌әm
...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
I will not send the letter
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:[27]
و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
ex:
و به نه ګرځي
wә́
walk...:AOR:PRS:3
bә
will:FUT
nə
not:NEG
gardzi
...walk:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not walk
a-initial verbs
The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/.[27] Thereby:
If there is a grammatical subject or object:
Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: اخستل [axstә́l]
ex:
مېوه به وا نه خلي
mewá
fruit:F:SG:DIR
bә
will:FUT
wā́
buy...:AOR:PRS:3
nə
not:NEG
xli
...buy:AOR:PRS:3
He/She/They will not buy the fruit
If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: استول [astawә́l]
ex:
موږ به ليک وا نه ستوو
munẓ̌
we:1:PL:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
lik
letter:SG:M:DIR
wā́
send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
nə
not:NEG
stawu
...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
We will not send the letter
If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
Verb: اچول [ačawә́l]
ex:
وا به نه چوې
wā́
put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG
bә
will:FUT
nə
not:NEG
čawe
...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You will not put it
Second Conjugation Class
First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed[28]
Second: به /bә/ can then be placed
Before verb:
ex:
کور ته به لاړ نه شو
kor
house:M:SG:DIR
ta
to:POST
bә
will:FUT
lāṛ
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
nә́
not:NEG
šu
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
We wont got to the house
Or before the object (likely where there is a subject)
ex:
موږ به کور ته لاړ نه شو
muẓ̌
we:1:PL:STR:DIR
bə
will:FUT
kor
house:M:SG:DIR
ta
to:POST
lāṛ
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
nә́
not:NEG
šu
go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
We wont got to the house
Third Conjugation Class
With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element.[27]
Example: روغېدل [roğedә́l]
ex:
ته به روغه نه شې
tə
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
bә
will:FUT
róğa
recover...:F:ADJ:SG
nə
not:NEG
še
...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You won't recover
"Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense
The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.[29]
ex:
کله چې هغۀ به ډول غږوۀ زه به ګډېدم
kála
when
če
that:COMP
bә
would
hağә́
he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL
ḍol
drum:SG:M:DIR
ğaẓ̌awә́
sound:PST:3:SG:M
zә
I:1:SG:STR:DIR
bә
would
gaḍedә́m
dance:PST:1:SG
When he would play the drum, I would dance
Adverbs
Summarize
Perspective
Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree.[30]
These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase.
Acting alone:
ex:
مخکښې راغله
mə́xkx̌e
before:ADV
rā́ğla
come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
She came earlier
Acting as adipositional phrase:
ex:
د ماما نه مخکښې راغله
də
of
māmā́
maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG
na
from
mə́xkx̌e
before:ADV
rā́ğla
come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
She came before (my) uncle
Adverbs of time
These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items.[30]
Common adverbs of time:
ex:
تل دې خدای لره
təl
always:ADV
de
NEC
xwdā́y
god:DIR
lará
have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG
May God keep you (well/alive) forever!
Adverbs of place
This informs us where something takes place.
Common adverbs of time:[31]
ex:
کښته کښېنه
kx̌ə́ta
underneath:ADV
kx̌éna
sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG
Sit down.
Demonstrative pronouns
These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns
Example sentence in Waziri:
ex:
دېلې ځں
déle
hereADV
dzə̃
go:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am going here
Adpositions
Summarize
Perspective
Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.[32]
Prepositions
List of prepositions
Postpositions
Ambipositions
Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (circumpositions). These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements.
The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements:
The final element is likely to be one of these words:
Here is a list of the simple formations:
Examples
The first element must be dropped when the object of the pre-position is a weak pronoun. Examples:
Sometimes in colloquial Pashto, the word له is dropped from نه and سره.
Phrases
Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.
With له.... نه
These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word
In some dialects له is replaced by د
Examples
With د ... په
Examples:
Examples:
Note: the possessive phrase [də/د] can be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.
Adpositions and noun cases
Summarize
Perspective
Oblique case
Most common case. The object [noun] of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case.
Used with:
- ته /tə/ 'to'
- سره /səra/ '[comitative] with'
- the prepositions د /də/ 'of' and په /pə/ 'at', plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two prepositions;
- the circumposition له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/.
Example: سړی [using preposition د] and ښځه [using preposition په] are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case
ex:
د سړي ملګری په ښځې اوسېږي
də
of:PREP
saṛí
man:M:OBL
malgə́ray
friend:M:DIR
pə
on:PREP
x̌ə́dze
woman:F:OBL
oséẓ̌i
live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
The man's friend lives on [his] wife
Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښې
ex:
په ما کښې ده
pə
on:PREP
mā
me:1:SG:STR:OBL
ke
in:POST
da
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
She/it is in me
Ablative case
Used with:
- له /lə/ 'from'; and also د /də/ having the same meaning 'from'
- تر /tər/ 'from, originating from'
- Circumposition containing تر /tər/, له /lə/; except له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/
- په /pə/ the instrumental usage only found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object
Example: circumposition تر ... پورې
ex:
تر کوره پورې تلم
tər
till:PREP
kóra
house:M:ABL
póre
till:POST
tlә́m
go:CONT:PST:1:SG
I was going till the house
With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of '(motion) away from':
ex:
د کوره راغلم
də
from:COMIT
kóra
house:M:ABL
rā́ğləm
come:AOR:PST:1:SG
I came from the house
په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective:
ex:
کور مې په ګرانه جوړ کړی دی
kor
house:M:DIR
me
I:1:SG:WK
pә
with:INSTR
grā́na
difficult:ADJ:M:DIR
joṛ
make:M:DIR
kә́ṛay
do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR
day
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
I have made the house with difficulty
Mixed ablative case and oblique cases
Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning.
Example: with سړی in oblique case
ex:
بې سړي کور تش وي
be
without:PREP
saṛí
man:M:OBL
kor
house:M:DIR
tә́š
empty:ADJ:M
wi
be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
Without a man, a house is empty
Example: with سړی in ablative case
ex:
بې سړیه کور تش وي
be
without:PREP
saṛiya
man:M:ABL
kor
house:M:DIR
tә́š
empty:ADJ:M
wi
be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
Without a man, a house is empty
Passive voice
Summarize
Perspective
Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs.[33] The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l ('to become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present).
ex:
په ښار کښې ددوو ودانیو بنسټ کېښودل شو
pә
in:PREP
x̌ār
city:M
ke
in:POST
dә
of:PREP
dwo
two:F:PL:OBL
wədānə́yo
building:F:PL:OBL
bənsáṭ
foundation:M:DIR
kex̌awdə́l
place:INF
šo
become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M
The foundations of two buildings were laid in the city
The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل:
If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د ...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/.
As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone
ex:
د خځې له خوا وهل کېږم
dә
of:PREP
x̌ә́źe
woman:F:OBL
lә
from:PREP
xwā
side:F:OBL
wahә́l
beat:INF
kéẓ̌әm
become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am being beaten by the woman
This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head.
ex:
د ښځې لوري ليکل شوي څېړنې لټوم
dә
of:PREP
x̌ә́źe
woman:F:OBL
lә
from:PREP
lúre
side:F:OBL
likә́l
write:INF
sә́wi
become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR
śeṛáne
research:F:PL:DIR
laṭawә́m
find:CONT:PRS:1:SG
I am finding the studies that were written by the woman
Adverbial Clauses
Pashto utilises conjunction phrases as adverbs. Examples:
Particles
Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".[34]
Existential
The word شته [shta] and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.
Modal Particles
Summarize
Perspective
Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause".[5] چې /t͡ʃe/ can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.
Affirmative
که نه
Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/ (literally: "if/or no").[35]
Affirmative Question Example:
ex:
لاړې که نه ؟
lā́ṛe
go:AOR:PST:2:SG
kə
or:PARTICLE
ná
no:NEG
You went, didn't you?
Affirmative Statement Example:
ex:
نه که نه
ná
no:NEG
kə
or:PARTICLE
ná
no:NEG
No, of-course not; No, I didn't you know
Deontic
دې
The modal دې [de; Southern dialects: di] expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.[36]
ex:
هغه دې وګډېږي
hağá
he:3SG:STR:DIR
de
NEC
wә́gaḍegi
dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
He should/must dance
باید
The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity.[37]
ex:
هغه بايد وګډېږي
hağá
he:3SG:STR:DIR
bāyád
NEC
wә́gaḍegi
dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
He should dance
پکار دى
"Pəkā́r day" [it is needed] is also used as deontic clause
ex:
پکار دی چې ته دلته راشې
pəkā́r
necessary
day
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
če
COMP
tә
you:2:SG:STR:DIR
də́lta
here:DEM
rā́še
come:AOR:PRS:2:SG
You should come here
Emphatic
خو
The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis.[38]
ex:
دا خو منو ده
dā
this:DIR
xo
xo:EMPH
manó
shark:F:DIR
da
be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
This is a shark!
Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.
Possibility
ښایي / ښائي
The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې [če][39]
ex:
ښايي چې سبا ته راشي
x̌ā́yi
maybe:PARTICLE
če
that:COMP
sabā́
tomorrow:ADV
ta
to
rā́ši
come:AOR:PRS:3
Maybe he/she will come tomorrow
The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"
کېدی شي
Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe used
ex:
کېدی شي [چې] سبا راشي
kedáy
become:CONT:PST:OPT
ši
become:AOR:PRS:3
[če]
[that:COMP]
sabā́
tomorrow:ADV
rā́ši
come:AOR:PRS:3
Maybe/perhaps he/she will come tomorrow
Vocative
The following vocatives have been noted:
Wish
کاشکې
The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened.[41]
It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish.
ex:
کاشکې وختي تللی وای!
kā́ške
if-only:PARTICLE
waxtí
early:ADV
tlә́lay
gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR
wāy
be:CONT:PST:OPT
I wish you had gone earlier
It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request.
Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry:[42]
ex:
هغې وې خوږه دلبره کاشکې ستا عقل زما شي
hağé
she:3:F:STR:OBL
we
say:CONT:PST:3
xoẓ̌á
sweet:ADJ:M:VOC
dilbára
beloved:N:M:VOC
kā́ske
if-only:PARTICLE
stā
your:2:SG:STR:POSS
akә́l
intelligence:N:M:DIR
zmā
my:1:SG:STR:POSS
ši
become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3
She was saying oh sweet beloved, if only your intelligence be mine
Nuance
Summarize
Perspective
In this section the nuances or the semantics in relation to specific words will be explained.
راوړل and راوستل
Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".[43]
Tangible Objects
Example راوړل:
ex:
اوبه مې راوړې
obә́
water:N:F:DIR
me
I:SG:WK
rā́wṛe
bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
I brought the water
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass
Example راوستل:
ex:
اوبه مې راوستې
obә́
water:N:F:DIR
me
I:SG:WK
rā́waste
bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
I brought the water
Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water
Intangible Objects
For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion.
ex:
پرمختګ يې راوست
parmәxtág
development:N:M:DIR
ye
3:WK
rā́wast
bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
He/she/they brought development
But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.
ex:
ښه خبر دې راوړ
x̌ə
good:ADJ
xabár
news:N:M:DIR
de
2:WK
rā́waṛ
bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
You brought good news
Adjectives
As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning.[44]
Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect [noun.masc.sing and plural]
Slang
Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:
Syntax
Summarize
Perspective
Pashto has subject-object-verb (SOV) word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb (SV) word order.[45]
In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.[46]
Phrasal syntax
Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.[32]
Noun phrases
Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.[32]
Adpositional phrases
The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.[47]
Verb phrases
Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.[48]
Light verb constructions
Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb (N-V).[48]
As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot.[48]
The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs.
Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.[49]
Elements in the verbal group
The verbal group in general Pashto
Certain particles can be inserted between:
- The perfective prefix و /wə/́and its verb.
- A prefix or pseudo-prefix and its verb. (This includes both the a-initial complex verbs and second conjugation, or prefixed, verbs.)
- The complement of a denominal verb and its verbalizer.[49]
The particles that interact with verbs in this way are:
- The modal clitics به /bə/ and دې /de/
- The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics مې /me/, دې /de/, یې /ye/, and مو /mo/
- The adverbial clitics خو /xo/ and نو /no/
- The negatives نه /ná/ and مه /má/
Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> { مو /mo/| مې /me/| دې /de/| یې /ye/} > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.[50]
Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase
The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.[13]
Numbers
Summarize
Perspective
Cardinal numbers
Direct case, masculine[51]
Ordinal numbers
Direct case, masc., sing.
- 1st لومړی lumṛai [also ړومبی]
- 2nd دويم dwaim [also دوهم]
- 3rd درېيم drəyam
- 4th څلورم tsaloram
- 5th پنځم pindzam
- 6th شپږم špaẓ̌am
- 7th اووم uwam
- 8th اتم atam
- 9th نهم nəham
- 10th لسم lasam
Notes
- 1.^ په بارې کښې [pə bâre ke] is also used but this is a word-for-word borrowing from Hindi/Urdu के बारे में/کے بارے میں [kē bārē mēⁿ]. The Hindi word bārē [बारे/بارے] is itself from Persian در بارهٔ [dar bāraye\dar bāreye]
- 2.^ Pashto has a rich number of dialects due to which the language has been spelled several ways in English: Pashto, Pakhto, Pukhto.[52]
References
External links
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