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Peshmerga
Internal security forces of Iraq's Kurdistan Region From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Peshmerga (Kurdish: پێشمەرگه, romanized: Pêşmerge, lit. ''Those Who Face Death'')[25] are the internal security forces of Kurdistan Region. According to the Constitution of Iraq, regional governments are responsible for "the establishment and organization of the internal security forces for the region such as police, security forces, and guards of the region".[26] Other Kurdish security agencies include the Zêrevanî (gendarmerie), Asayish (security and counterterrorism service), and the Parastin u Zanyarî (intelligence agency). The Peshmerga's history dates back to the 18th century, when they began as a tribal paramilitary border guard under the Ottoman Turks and the Safavid Kurds. By the 19th century, they had evolved into a disciplined and well-trained guerrilla force.[27]
Formally, the Peshmerga are under the command of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs (MoPA) of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). In practice, however, the Peshmerga's structure is largely divided and controlled separately by the two Iraqi Kurdish political parties: the Democratic Party of Kurdistan (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Though unifying and integrating the Peshmerga has been on the Kurdistan Region's public agenda since 1992, the individual forces remain divided due to factionalism, which has proven to be a major stumbling block.[28]
Besides being the official name for the KRG's internal security forces, historically the word Peshmerga has also been used for a variety of Kurdish militas and armed groups. A few examples are the Peshmerga of the KDPI, PAK and Komala.[29]
Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Peshmerga played a key role in helping the United States on the mission to capture deposed Iraqi president Saddam Hussein.[30][31] In 2004, they captured Saudi-born Pakistani terrorist Hassan Ghul, who was operating for al-Qaeda in Iraq. Ghul was turned over to American intelligence officers shortly afterwards, which eventually led to the killing of Osama bin Laden in a covert American military operation in Pakistan in 2011.[32][33][34]
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Etymology
The word "Peshmerga" can be translated to "to stand in front of death",[35][36][37] and Valentine states it was first used by Qazi Muhammad in the short-lived Mahabad Republic (1946–47).[38] The word is understandable to Persian speakers.[39] Because, the name was also used to refer to an elite unit within the Sassanid Empire's military, specifically a sub-unit of the Pushtigban, called the Gyan-avspar.[40] These warriors were renowned for their unwavering loyalty and bravery, often serving as the last line of defense for the Sassanid kings.[41][42][43][44]
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History
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The Kurdish warrior tradition of rebellion has existed for thousands of years along with aspirations for independence. Early Kurdish warriors fought with and against the various Persian empires, the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire.[27][45]
Mahabad Republic
While Kurdish warriors had traditionally operated as guerrilla forces, during the brief existence of the self-declared Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947), a contingent led by Mustafa Barzani served as its official military force.[46][47] According to Kurdish lore, the leaders of Mahabad gathered to choose a name for their army. As the story goes, they struggled to find a suitable word for 'soldier.' A server, overhearing their discussion, suggested peshmerga, a slang term from his nearby village. The name was adopted, and the force was formally named the Peshmerga.[48] After the fall of the republic and the execution of the head of state, Qazi Muhammad, Peshmerga forces reemerged as guerrilla organizations that would go on to fight the Iranian and Iraqi governments for the remainder of the century.[49]
Iraqi Kurdistan
In Iraq, most of these Peshmerga fighters continued to be led by Mustafa Barzani and his newly established Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP).[47] The first major war fought by the Peshmerga in Iraqi Kurdistan was the First Iraqi–Kurdish War, lasting from 1961 until 1970, in which Barzani and his forces fought for independence. The war resulted in the signing the Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement. Kurdish autonomy had failed to be implemented by 1974, which led to the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War in 1975. Jalal Talabani, a leading member of the KDP, left the same year to revitalize the resistance and founded the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). This event created the baseline for the political discontent between the KDP and PUK that divides Peshmerga forces and much of Kurdish society to this day.[50][51]
After Mustafa Barzani's death in 1979, his son Masoud Barzani took over his position.[47] As tension increased between the KDP and PUK, most Peshmerga forces fought to keep Iraqi Kurdistan under their own party's control, whilst also fighting off the Iraqi Army's incursions. Following the First Gulf War, Iraqi Kurdistan beacme the theater of the broader Kurdish Civil War, a conflict between the rivaling KDP and PUK parties, in which Peshmerga forces were used to fight against each other.[52] The civil war officially ended in September 1998 when Barzani and Talabani signed the Washington Agreement establishing a formal peace treaty.[53] In the agreement, the parties agreed to share oil revenue and power, deny the use of Iraqi Kurdistan to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), and to not allow Iraqi troops into the Kurdish regions. By then, around 5,000 Peshmerga and civilians had been killed on both sides, and many more had been evicted for being on the "wrong side".[54]
2003 invasion of Iraq
In the years after, tensions remained high, but both parties came closer to each other, and in 2003 both of them, jointly took part in the overthrowing of the Baathist regime as part of the Iraq War.[55] After the overthrowing, the Peshmerga were politically recognized and obtained a special legal position. This improvement came from the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) with issuing orders that recognized the Peshmerga and exempted them from disbandment. In August 2003, parts of the Peshmerga were assigned to border security and oil pipeline protection, while others trained with coalition troops. Peshmerga units collaborated closely with U.S. forces on patrols, interrogations, and security missions. At one point, the Peshmerga made up 30% of the new Iraqi Army. In 2006, a major conference in Erbil, involving the KRG, Iraqi Government, and Multinational Forces in Iraq, clarified the Peshmerga’s role: defending the Kurdistan Region, supporting federal security efforts, fighting terrorism, and preserving constitutional institutions. This situation remained stable and helped the Peshmerga reorganize and train its troops in military academies in the Zakho-Duhok area and Qalachulan-Sulaymaniyah area.[56]
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2014 War against the Islamic State
In 2014, the Peshmerga and Iraqi Armed Forces withdrew from the Nineveh Plains, which was said by the locals as being a contributing factor of the quick Islamic State victory in the invasion, and the widespread massacre of Yazidis, who were rendered defenseless.[57] After the retreat and with the capital Erbil, only being 30-minutes away from ISIS' threat, the Peshmerga fought back and recaptured wast territories of the Kirkuk, Nineveh and Diyala Governorates. According to Myles B. Caggins III, the Senior Spokesperson for the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS at the time, the Peshmerga made the "ultimate sacrifice" in the War Against the Islamic State with over 1,300 Peshmerga fighters being killed, and upwards of 8,000 being wounded.[58]
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Structure
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Party affiliations
The Peshmerga are mostly divided among forces loyal to the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and those loyal to the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK),[59] while other, minor Kurdish parties such as the Kurdistan Socialist Democratic Party also have their own small Peshmerga units.[60] The Islamic Movement of Kurdistan also had its own Peshmerga unit, which became an official Peshmerga branch during the Iran-Iraq war, and was disarmed in 2003.[61] In daily life and the media, Peshmerga are referred to as Peshmerga i parti (KDP) or Peshmerga i yaketi (PUK) – i.e., KDP peshmerga or PUK Peshmerga.[62] The KDP and PUK do not disclose information about the composition of their forces with government or media.[59] Thus there is no reliable number of how many Peshmerga fighters exist.[59] Media outlets have speculated that there are between 150,000 and 200,000 Peshmerga, but this number is highly disputed.[63][64] The Peshmerga are divided into a KDP-governed "yellow" zone covering Dohuk Governorate and Erbil Governorate and a PUK-governed "green" zone covering Sulaymaniyah Governorate and Halabja Governorate.[65][59][28] Each zone has its own branch of Peshmerga with their own governing institutions that do not coordinate with the other branch.[28][66]
Unification efforts
As a result of the split nature of the Peshmerga forces, there is no central command center in charge of the entire force, and Peshmerga units instead follow separate military hierarchies depending on political allegiance.[67] Multiple unification and depoliticizing efforts of the Peshmerga have been made since 1992. Many deadlines have been missed,[28] reforms have been watered down,[59] and most of the Peshmerga are still under the influence and command of the KDP and the PUK. In 2016 and 2017, following the events of the Iraqi Civil War, the United States and several European nations pressured the PUK and KDP to set up mixed brigades of Peshmerga as a condition for aid and funding. The PUK and KDP united 12 to 14 brigades under the Regional Guard Brigades (RGB), which were then placed under the command of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs.[59] However, officers continue to report to and take orders from their party leaders who also control the deployment of forces loyal to them and appoint front-line and sector commanders.[28]
2022 Memorandum of understanding
A major step towards unification was reached in 2022, when a four-year memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the US Department of Defense and Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs was signed. The memorandum outlined further conditions and timelines for the integration of Peshmerga forces into the centralised MoPA.[58][68] A joint US-KRG statement read:
“The MoU outlines progress achieved on critical institutional reforms and the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs’ commitment to undertake additional reforms to advance the professionalization of its forces.”[69]
Over the years the MoPA undertook several reforms, which "signify determination". As of 2023 28 Regional Guard Brigades have been unified.[70] 2 division headquarters have been established, enhancing command and control over the RGB.[71] The MoPA and partisan Peshmerga units provided a comprehensive list of military equipment for each brigade. Biometric enrollment of Peshmerga personnel exceeded 85 percent. The MoPA submitted a four-year budget request to the KRG to sustain a 125,000 unified Peshmerga force structure. Prime Minister Masrour Barzani initiated the “My Account” KRG-wide program for electronic funds transfers for salaries.[58]
Critical reforms, which have been stalled or that are behind schedule are, the plans for two additional MoPA division headquarters, and the incorporation of units 70 and 80 into the MoPA.[58]
At the end of 2022, a report by the U.S. Defense Department’s Lead Inspector General to Congress noted that the joint Regional Guard Brigades participated in 5,651 of the 7,516 anti-ISIS operations conducted by Peshmerga forces. This level of involvement was viewed as an encouraging step toward greater unification.[72]
Combat Forces
Both the KDP and the PUK Peshmerga rely heavily on irregulars in times of conflict to increase their ranks.[73] However, both maintain several professional military brigades. The Peshmerga forces are described as a secular force with a Muslim majority and smaller Assyrian, Chaldean Catholic, Yazidi and Kaka'i units.[74][75][76] In 2016 the MoPA intended to create a military division for the Arabs and Turkmen of Kirkuk Province, but financial difficulties halted the project.[77] Most minority units have been formed, when the Peshmerga took over the disputed territories in the War against the Islamic State.[78]
The following units are affiliated with or have been identified within the Peshmerga force:
Peshmerga in the Iraqi Army
Due to limited funding and the vast size of the Peshmerga forces, the KRG planned to downsize its forces from large numbers of low-quality forces to a smaller but much more effective and well-trained force.[97] Consequently, in 2009, the KRG and Baghdad engaged in discussions about incorporating parts of the Peshmerga forces into the Iraqi Army in what would be the 15th and 16th Iraqi Army divisions.[98][99] However, after increasing tension between Erbil and Baghdad regarding the disputed areas, the transfer was largely put on hold. Some Peshmerga were already transferred but reportedly deserted again, and there are allegations that former Peshmerga forces remained loyal to the KRG rather than their Iraqi chain of command; regardless, thousands of members of the 80 Unit of KDP and the 70 Unit of PUK are based in Baghdad and cooperate well with other Iraqi forces.[100][101][102]
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Inventory and capabilities
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Peshmerga forces largely rely on old arms captured from battles. The Peshmerga captured large stockpiles of weapons during the 1991 Iraqi uprisings.[103] Several stockpiles of weapons were captured from the old Iraqi Army during the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, in which Peshmerga forces were active. Following the retreat of the new Iraqi Army during the June 2014 Islamic State offensive, Peshmerga forces reportedly again managed to get hold of weapons left behind by the Iraqis.[104] Since August 2014, Peshmerga forces have also captured weapons from the Islamic State.[105]
The Peshmerga arsenal is limited and confined by restrictions because the Kurdish Region has to purchase arms through the Iraqi government. Due to disputes between the KRG and the Iraqi government, arms flows from Baghdad to Kurdistan Region have been almost nonexistent, as Baghdad fears Kurdish aspirations for independence.[106][107][59] After the Islamic State offensive of August 2014, multiple governments armed the Peshmerga with light arms, night-vision devices, and ammunition.[108][109] However, Kurdish officials and Peshmerga stressed that they were not receiving enough and Baghdad was blocking arms from reaching the KRG, emphasizing the need for weapons to be sent directly and not through Baghdad.[110][111] Despite this, the United States has maintained that the government of Iraq is responsible for the security of Iraqi Kurdistan and that Baghdad must approve all military aid.[59]
The Peshmerga lack a proper medical corps and communication units.[59] This became apparent during the Islamic State offensive in 2014 where the Peshmerga found itself lacking ambulances and frontline field hospitals, forcing wounded fighters to walk back to safety.[59] There is also a lack of communication tools, as Peshmerga commanders are forced to use civilian cellphones to communicate with each other.[59] Under the guidance of the US-led coalition the Peshmerga started to standardize it's weapons systems, replacing Soviet-era weapons with NATO firearms.[59] In 2015, for the first time, Peshmerga soldiers received urban warfare and military intelligence training from foreign trainers of the Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve.[112]
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Issues
Peshmerga has been accused of corruption, partisanship, nepotism and fraud.[113][114][115][116] The Peshmerga was accused of listing "ghost employees" who do not exist or do not show up for work, but receive salaries. Those setting up the scam split the salary with these employees.[59]
In addition the KDP and PUK have used the Peshmerga to exert a monopoly on the use of force within their zones.[59] In 2011 KDP Peshmerga fired on anti-government protesters in Sulaymaniyah, and the PUK later used its own security forces to break up these protests,[28] leading to criticism from all of the opposition parties in the Kurdistan Region Parliament. In 2014 the KDP used its Peshmerga forces to stop delegates from the Gorran Movement to enter Erbil and attend parliament.[59]
Outside of Kurdistan Region the Peshmerga has been criticized for using force to exert control of local Arab, Yazidi and Assyrian communities, particularly during the Iraqi Civil War.[117]
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Role of women
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Historic involvement
Women have played a significant role in the Peshmerga since its foundation, compared to other Middle Eastern militaries. The Kurdish Zand tribe was known for allowing women in military roles.[27] During the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict the majority of women served within the Peshmerga in supporting roles such as building camps, taking care of the wounded, and carrying munitions and messages.[73] Several women brigades served on the front lines. The PUK started recruiting women during the Kurdish Civil War. Women were given a 45-day basic training, which included parade drills and basic marksmanship training with various rifles, mortars, and RPGs.[27]
Modern era
In the months leading up to the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the United States launched Operation Viking Hammer which dealt a huge blow to Islamic terrorist groups in Iraqi Kurdistan and uncovered a chemical weapons facility.[118][119][120][121][122] The PUK later confirmed that female Kurdish fighters had participated in the operation.[73]
In 2014 the Peshmerga had at least 600 women in their ranks.[123] The number of women increased significantly during the war against ISIS due to a shortage of manpower and the desire for revenge.[123] The Peshmerga have one entirely female brigade.[124] In the KDP, these Peshmerga women have been refused access to the frontline and are mostly used in logistics and management positions,[125] while PUK Peshmerga women are deployed on the front lines and are actively engaging in combat.[126][127][27] Women are paid the same as men.[123]
Famous female fighters
Margaret George Malik[128] was an iconic[129] Assyrian guerilla fighter who was given a leading position in important battles such as the Battle of Zawita Valley.[130] She was nicknamed "Joan of Arc of Kurdistan" for her courage she displayed in combat. In 1995 Colonel Nahida Rashid created the first women’s Peshmerga unit. Other well known female Peshmergas are Kafiya Suleiman, Hero Ibrahim Ahmad, Pakhshan Zangana and Amineh Kakabaveh.[131]
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See also
- List of armed groups in the War in Iraq (2013–2017)
- Kurdish rebellion of 1983 and Al-Anfal campaign
- Sinjar massacre and Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL
- YPG – Mainly-Kurdish militia in Syria
- YPJ – Ethnic Kurdish military unit
- PKK – Kurdish militant political organization
- PDKI – Kurdish political party in Iran
- Zaytun Division – 2004–2008 South Korean army unit in Iraq
- Barzani (tribe) – Kurdish tribe in Iraq
- Moshe Barazani – Kurdish Zionist militant, in the Lehi.
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References
Further reading
External links
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