Sit-in movement

This article is about the wave of sit-ins during the 1960s in the United States. For the nonprofit organization, see International Civil Rights Center and Museum.

The sit-in movement, sit-in campaign, or student sit-in movement, was a wave of sit-ins that followed the Greensboro sit-ins on February 1, 1960, led by students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical Institute (A&T).^[1] Even though the Greensboro sit-in was not the initial sit-in it created a boom of sit-ins that then created this movement. The sit-in movement employed the tactic of nonviolent direct action and was a pivotal event during the Civil Rights Movement.^[2]

Sit-in movement
Part of the Civil Rights Movement
Student sit-in at Woolworth in Durham, North Carolina on February 10, 1960
Date	February 1, 1960 – 1964
Location	United States
Caused by	Racial segregation in public accommodations Reaction to the Greensboro sit-ins
Parties
Student activists Segregated businesses

The sit-in movement took place during the 1960s, but sit-ins were occurring all over America many years before then. The idea for sit-ins first stemmed from the sit-down strikes during the labor movement.^[3] Due to the success of sit-down strikes, similar peaceful protest tactics were used to fight for civil rights. Some of the most influential sit-ins prior to the sit-in movement occurred in Chicago, Illinois in 1943. These sit-ins lead by CORE set a prime example of how sit-ins work and why they are effective.^[4]

African-American college students attending historically Black colleges and universities in the United States powered the sit-in movement. Many students in the United States followed by example, as sit-ins provided a powerful tool for students to use to attract attention.^[5] The students of Baltimore made use of this in 1960 when many used the efforts to desegregate department store restaurants, which proved to be successful lasting about three weeks. This was one small role Baltimore played in the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The city facilitated social movements as it saw bus and taxi companies hiring African Americans in 1951–1952.^[6] Sit-ins also frequently occurred in segregated facilities in Oklahoma City between 1958 and 1964.^[7]

Students at Morgan State College in Baltimore, Maryland, successfully deployed sit-ins and other direct action protest tactics against lunch counters in the city since 1953. One successful student sit-in occurred in 1955 at Read's Drug Store.^[8] Despite also being led by students and successfully resulting in the end of segregation at a store lunch counter, the Read's Drug Store sit-in did not receive the same level of attention that was later given to the Greensboro sit-ins.^[9] Two store lunch counter sit-ins, which occurred in Wichita, Kansas and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in 1958, also proved successful and employed tactics similar to those of the future Greensboro sit-ins.^[10][11] The local chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality had had similar success. After witnessing the unprecedented amount of visibility that the 1960 sit-ins in Greensboro, North Carolina, gained in the wide-oriented mainstream media, Morgan students (and others, including those from the Johns Hopkins University) continued sit-in campaigns that were already underway at department stores and restaurants near their campus. There were massive amounts of support from the community for the student’s efforts, but more importantly, white involvement and support grew in favor of the desegregation of department store restaurants.^[12] -- The students received significant support from the community, and more importantly, white involvement in favor of desegregating department store restaurants grew.

Additional image of Civil Rights protestors executing a sit-in at a Woolworth's in Durham, North Carolina on February 10th of 1960.

While sit-ins were by far the most prominent in 1960, they continued to be a useful tactic in the civil rights movement in the years that followed. In February 1961, students from Friendship Junior College in Rock Hill, South Carolina, organized a sit-in at a segregated lunch counter. The students were then arrested and refused to pay bail. This was part of their "Jail, No Bail" strategy,^[13] they instead decided to serve jail time as a demonstration of their commitment to the civil rights movement.

Another example of sit-ins that were a crucial part of the civil rights movement were the Albany, Georgia sit-ins that started in December 1961. In order to advocate for civil rights and desegregate public facilities in Albany, sit-ins, boycotts, and marches were used. The Freedom Rides of 1961 also played a crucial role, with activists. Participating in sit-ins at segregated bus terminals across the South to challenge segregation in interstate transportation. This and other strong actions helped propel momentum and eventually helped lead to the removal of segregation laws in the United States.^[14]

The sit-ins in Greensboro invigorated U.S. civil rights movements by reinforcing the success of other protests like the Montgomery bus boycott, which had shown how effectively a mass of people could change public opinions and governmental policies.^[15]

Before the Sit-In Movement

Image of workers guarding a entrance to the Fischer Body Plant in Flint, Michigan (1937)

The sit-in movement was an integral part of the civil rights movement. It provided African Americans with a way to peacefully protest the inequality of rights throughout America. Although sit-ins are primarily remembered as a tactic used throughout the civil rights movement to challenge segregation, sit-ins can be traced back to the "sit-down" strikes during the labor movement. The main goals of the labor movement were better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions. In order to advocate for their rights, workers would withdraw their labor through strikes. Although effective in some cases, many laborers were fired and replaced or given ultimatums to return back to work. Because of the antiunion forces against workers, they developed the idea of the sit-down strike. As sit-down strikes were done by simply sitting down at one's work space and doing no work, employers could not replace the workers. The first successful use of the "sit-down" strike tactic was the Flint sit-down strike. This strike forced General Motors to recognize the United Auto Workers as the sole bargaining unit.^[16] Due to the effectiveness of this protest tactic, sit-down strikes continued throughout the labor movement and shifted into other movements such as civil rights.^[3]

As a result of the effectiveness of the sit-down strikes during the labor movement, similar peaceful protest tactics were adopted and brought into the civil rights movement. Many civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Bayard Rustin studied the "sit-down" strikes of the labor movement to learn what aspects worked and could be applied to the civil rights movement. Although the sit-in movement took place during 1960, there were many sit-ins that took place before then. Some of the earliest sit-ins that took place during the civil rights movement were in Chicago, Illinois in 1943. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was founded in Chicago in 1942 by a group of university students. As many public places in Chicago are still segregated despite the Illinois Civil Rights Act of 1885, CORE decided to take action at the diners and restaurants that were known for not serving Black individuals. Their first target was Jack Spratt's Coffee House as Black members of CORE had previously been turned away from dining there. Before the sit-in, attempts were made to make an agreement with the manager of Jack Spratt's but no consensus was reached. The Jack Spratt's sit-in took place on May 14, 1943 at 4:30pm when twenty-eight members of CORE (both Black and White individuals) and demanded to be equally served in the dining area. Although it took multiple hours and police enforcement, all parties were served and the restaurant policy was changed. Due to the success of their first sit-in, CORE decided to keep their momentum going and attempt to fight the injustices at another restaurant that was known for its animosity towards African Americans. In June 1943 sixty-eight members of CORE participated in a sit-in at Stoner's Restaurant with the same goals. After pushback from the public and white CORE members, the Black members were eventually seated.^[17]

Although the Chicago sit-ins were not widely advertised at the time, they played an extremely influential role in the sit-in movement and the civil rights movement as a whole. Sit-ins continued throughout the 1940s and 1950s unit the major sit-ins in 1960. The many sit-ins that occurred throughout the history of the civil rights movement eventually contributed to the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.^[17]

Outside Support

One of the most significant contributions to the sit-in movement came from the legal community, especially civil rights organizations like the NAACP and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). These organizations provided both moral and logistical support to the sit-in participants, helping them organize protests and, when necessary, offering legal assistance. The NAACP's legal team, led by Thurgood Marshall, helped to challenge the discriminatory practices that the sit-ins targeted, particularly segregation laws that allowed for public establishments to deny service based on race. By filing lawsuits and assisting with legal defense, the NAACP ensured that the sit-ins had both legal visibility and the ability to sustain their momentum in the face of arrests and other forms of resistance from local authorities.^[18]

In addition to legal support, the sit-ins received significant attention from the media. National and local newspapers, radio stations, and television networks covered the events extensively, bringing the difficult circumstances of African American youth to the forefront of the national conversation. The widespread media coverage of the sit-ins put pressure on local and state governments to address segregationist policies, while also motivating other activists and inspiring similar protests across the country. The media helped turn the sit-ins into a symbol of resistance that drew national attention to the deep-seated racial injustice common in American society.^[19]

One of the many churches involved in aiding members of the sit-movement.

Moreover, the sit-ins were supported by a broad alliance of faith-based groups. Religious organizations, particularly churches and clergy members, played a key role in providing sanctuary and moral support for the participants. Many church leaders not only provided spiritual guidance but also facilitated transportation, housing, and food for the activists involved in the sit-ins. These faith-based groups recognized the sit-ins as part of a larger moral struggle for justice and equality, and their support added further legitimacy to the movement.^[20]

Finally, the federal government, while initially hesitant to intervene, eventually became a significant player in supporting the civil rights movement. The Kennedy administration, particularly under the leadership of Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began to offer federal protection to sit-in participants, especially when violence erupted or when protesters faced unjust treatment. This federal involvement helped mitigate the risks for many activists, giving them confidence to continue their peaceful protests, knowing that they had some form of legal protection from federal authorities.^[21]

List of Sit-Ins

Precursors to sit-in movement

Start date	Sit-in(s)	Location	Ref.	Notes
August 21, 1939	Alexandria Library sit-in	Alexandria, Virginia	[22][23]	[note 1]
May 16, 1943	Jack Spratt's Coffee House	Chicago, Illinois	[24][25]	[note 2]
June 1943	Stoner's Restaurant	Chicago, Illinois	[24][25]	[note 3]
July 1948	Des Moines Katz Drugstore protests	Des Moines, Iowa	[26]
1953	Baltimore	Baltimore, Maryland
1954	Dresden	Dresden, Ontario, Canada	[27]
January 20, 1955	Read's Drug Store	Baltimore, Maryland	[28][29]	[note 4]
June 23, 1957	Royal Ice Cream sit-in	Durham, North Carolina	[30]	[note 5]
July 19, 1958	Dockum Drug Store sit-in	Wichita, Kansas	[31]
August 19, 1958	Katz Drug Store sit-in	Oklahoma City, Oklahoma	[32][31]	[note 6]
1959	Miami	Miami, Florida

1960s Sit-in

Start date (1960)	Sit-in(s)	University or College students	State	Ref.	Notes
February 1	Greensboro sit-ins	North Carolina A&T State University	North Carolina	[33][34]
February 8	Durham	North Carolina College		[34]
	Fayetteville	Fayetteville State Teachers College		[34]
	Winston-Salem	Winston-Salem Teachers College		[34]
February 9	Charlotte	Johnson C. Smith University		[34]
	Concord	Barber–Scotia College		[34]
	Elizabeth City	Elizabeth City State Teachers College		[34]
	Henderson			[34]
	High Point			[34]
February 10	Raleigh	Saint Augustine's College		[34]
		Shaw University
February 11	Hampton	Hampton University	Virginia	[34]
	Portsmouth			[34]
	High Point	William Penn High School	North Carolina	[35]
February 12	Rock Hill	Clinton Junior College	South Carolina	[34]
	Norfolk		Virginia	[34][36]
February 13	Nashville sit-ins	Fisk University	Tennessee	[34]	[note 7]
	Tallahassee	Florida A&M University	Florida	[34][37]
		Florida State University
February 14	Sumter	Morris College	South Carolina	[34]
February 16	Salisbury	Livingstone College	North Carolina	[34]
February 18	Charleston		South Carolina	[34]
	Shelby		North Carolina	[34]
February 19	Chattanooga		Tennessee	[34][38]
February 20	Richmond	Virginia Union University	Virginia	[34][39]	[note 8]
February 22	Baltimore	Coppin State Teachers College	Maryland	[34]
	Frankfort	State Normal School for Colored Persons	Kentucky	[34]
February 25	Montgomery	Alabama State College	Alabama	[34]	[note 9]
	Orangeburg	Claflin College	South Carolina	[34]
February 26	Lexington		Kentucky	[34]
	Petersburg	Virginia State College	Virginia	[34]
	Tuskegee	Tuskegee Institute	Alabama	[34]
February 27	Tampa		Florida	[34]
February 28	Chapel Hill		North Carolina	[40]
March 2	Columbia	Allen University	South Carolina	[34]
		Benedict College
	Daytona Beach	Bethune–Cookman College	Florida	[34]
	St. Petersburg			[34]
March 4	Houston	Texas Southern University	Texas	[34][41]	[note 10]
	Miami	Florida Memorial College	Florida	[34]
March 7	Knoxville	Knoxville College	Tennessee	[34][45][46]
March 8	New Orleans	Dillard University	Louisiana	[34]
		Southern University
March 10	Little Rock	Arkansas Baptist College	Arkansas	[34]
March 11	Austin	Huston–Tillotson College	Texas	[34]
	Galveston			[34]
March 12	Jacksonville	Edward Waters College	Florida	[34]
March 13	San Antonio		Texas	[34]
March 15	Atlanta sit-ins	Clark College	Georgia	[34][47]	[note 11]
		Morehouse College
		Morris Brown College
		Spelman College
	Orangeburg	South Carolina State University	South Carolina	[48]	[note 12]
		Claflin College
	Corpus Christi		Texas	[34]
	St. Augustine		Florida	[34]
	Statesville		North Carolina	[34]
March 16	Savannah	Savannah State College	Georgia	[34]
March 17	New Bern		North Carolina	[34]
March 19	Memphis	Owen Junior College	Tennessee	[34]
	Wilmington		North Carolina	[34]
	Arlington		Virginia	[34]
March 26	Lynchburg	Randolph-Macon Woman's College; Lynchburg College; and Virginia Theological Seminary and College	Virginia	[34][49]
March 28	Baton Rouge	Southern University	Louisiana	[34]	[note 13]
	New Orleans	Xavier University		[34]
March 29	Marshall	Wiley College	Texas	[34][50]
March 31	Birmingham	Wenonah State Technical Institute	Alabama	[34]
		Miles College
April 2	Danville		Virginia	[34]
April 4	Darlington		South Carolina	[34]
April 9	Augusta	Paine College	Georgia	[34]
April 12	Norfolk	Virginia State College (Norfolk Division)	Virginia	[34]
April 17	Biloxi		Mississippi	[34]
April 23	Starkville			[34]
April 24	Charleston	Burke High School	South Carolina	[34][51]	[note 14]
April 28	Dallas	Paul Quinn College	Texas	[34]
June 17	Baltimore		Maryland	[34][52]	[note 15]Related post-1960 sit-ins

Date	Sit-in(s)	Location	Ref.	Notes
September 11, 1960	El Charro Mexican Restaurant	Flagstaff, Arizona	[54]
January 31, 1961	Rock Hill	South Carolina		[note 16]
November 1, 1961	Albany State College Bus Terminal	Albany, Georgia	[14]
1962		Sewanee, Tennessee		[note 17]
May 28, 1963	Woolworth's	Jackson, Mississippi	[56][57]	[note 18]
March 7, 1964	Audubon Regional Library	Clinton, Louisiana	[58]	[note 19]

See also

• The Children, 1999 book on the Nashville Student Movement
• Women's War
• Julius sip-in, LGBT protest inspired by the sit-in movement

• 1960s portal
• Civil rights movement portal

Notes

1. Five men participated in the sit-in organized by Samuel Wilbert Tucker.
2. Led by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
3. Led by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
4. The sit-in was conducted at Read's Drug Store.
5. Participants include Douglas E. Moore.
6. Participants include Clara Luper.
7. Participants during the February 20, 17 include Patricia Stephens.
8. 34 students would participate and be arrested. They became known as the Richmond 34.
9. The sit-in targeted a state capitol cafeteria and was led by Bernard Lee accompanied by three dozen students.
10. Participants include Texas Southern University student and leader Holly Hogrobrooks. Also see Ku Klux Klan victim Felton Turner.^[42][43][44]
11. Participants include Morehouse College student Charles Person.
12. Resulted in the largest mass arrest (388) of the Civil Rights Movement up to that point.
13. Sit-in led to Garner v. Louisiana (1961) case.
14. Led by James Blake and occurred at the Kress store on King Street.
15. Sit-in led to Bell v. Maryland (1964) case that involved Robert M. Bell.^[53]
16. Students from Friendship Junior College protested. A group of nine students known as the Friendship Nine would use the "jail no bail" tactic later duplicated by other protestors. The sit-in is regarded as the first to use the tactic, but Christopher W. Schmidt challenges this assertion. Patricia Stephens Due is sometimes credited as the first to use the tactic.^[55]
17. Participants include Bruce W. Klunder.
18. Participants include Pearlena Lewis and Anne Moody.
19. Sit-in led to Brown v. Louisiana (1966) case.