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Turkestan Provisional Government
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The Turkestan Provisional Government (In Turkish: Türkistan Türk Müstakil İslam Cumhuriyeti)[2] was established during the Kafirun Congress held on 15 April 1922 as part of the broader Basmachi movement. The short-lived government controlled parts of present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, with Samarkand serving as its capital and Bukhara as its largest city.
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Background
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Kafirun Congress
On 28 March 1922, Enver Pasha was declared commander of all forces in Eastern Bukhara by a decree from Alim Khan.[3][4] On April 9; Enver Pasha issued a nine-point circular to all the Basmachi, explaining the situation and giving advice on conduct:[5]
'It is essential that all mujahideen trust each other, obey, and respect each other’s opinions. . . . Since you are all children of the same homeland, I request that you eliminate individual or divisive disputes, unite under a single flag, and serve a single ideal.' He advised them to cut off the enemy’s supply lines, saying: 'It is essential that you be very meticulous in this matter.' Carry out raids on the enemy’s supply detachments and establish a good intelligence network. 'I request that you send your delegations to attend the congress to be held after April 10, 1922.' "Commander of the Bukhara Mujahideen of Islam, Damad-ı Halife-i Müslimin, Enver."
While touring the southern front of Boysun, Enver pasha and his men passed through the village of Kafirun, located about 2 km away.[6] On 15 April 1922, at Kafirun, an enormous crowd gathered under the command of their headquarters. For a council scheduled that day, nearly one hundred Basmachis from all corners of Turkestan had assembled, leading approximately 3,000 armed fighters united under the banner of Enver Pasha for a common ideal.[7] That day, precisely at eight o’clock[8], Enver Pasha, accompanied by Chief of Staff Hasan Bey, Afghan Captain Afzaleddin, and Afghan volunteers under the command of Ahmet Khan, had gathered under his flag. Before nearly one hundred Basmachis assembled for the congress, Enver Pasha addressed them in Ottoman Turkish:[9]
"ای ترکستانِ مُجاهدلَرِنین قهرمانلاری! سیزلَر بو گؤزل و مُثِلْسِز وطنِیْنینیزی، یِت(?) ییل دیر آنونُ مُردَر چِیزمَه‌لَری ایله قَدیْمَلی‌یان روس‌لاردان آزاد ائتمک اُچون بورادا توپلانمیش سیز. قدَرین چِلْوَسی ایله بیز، باشقا بیر مملکتده دوغولوب بِیوُمُوش افغان گؤنُلُلوَر ایله تقدیرینیزده شریک اولوروز.
بِن و ضابطانیم حُضورونوزدا واعده ائدیریم کی، بو مقدّراتا شریک اولماغ‌دان پِشیمانلیق حسِی اِتمِیرم. سون نفَسیمَغَه قَدَر بو دَوا اوچون چالیشاجام. اینجا وردیغیم یَمینی شَرَفْینِیز ایله تَصْدِیق ائدِمَنِیزی طلب ائدیرم."
English Translation:
"O heroes of Turkestan’s mujahideen, you have gathered here to liberate your beautiful and unparalleled homeland from the Russians, who for seventy years have trampled it under their filthy boots. By the twists of fate, we, born in another land, and the Afghan volunteers share in your destiny. On behalf of myself and my fellow officers, I promise before you that I do not regret sharing in your fate. I will work for this cause until my last breath. I ask that you, in turn, endorse the pledge I make here with your honor."
In response, all the basmachis affirmed the Kafirun decisions, declaring: "We pledge on our honor!"[8]
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Creation of The Turkestan Provisional Government[10][11][12]
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Decisions of the Kafirun congress
- In areas of Eastern Bukhara cleared of the enemy, regular and organized military forces will be established and combat procedures will be implemented.
- Mobile forces will be sent to regions where uprisings have not yet occurred to encourage the local population to mobilize.
- In each province, a commander (leshkerbashi) will be appointed to manage revolutionary movements.
- If zakat and tribute are insufficient for the supply of military forces, a tax will be levied on the population according to their wealth.
- A collector will be appointed to manage these financial matters.
- In each province, in areas cleared of the enemy, a local government will be established and its administration organized.
- In places where commanders and local leaders have not yet been appointed, we will assign commanders, governors, and zakat collectors. In areas capable of self-administration, the sergerdars will inform us in due time about these appointments.
- Commanders will be responsible for all military affairs. Beys and other military personnel will handle provisioning and logistics and assist commanders in supplying troops and other necessities. Zakat collectors, appointed to protect the population from oppression while administering local affairs, will be responsible for collecting zakat.
- Each provincial commander and Bey will send a daily report to the central command. If security conditions are stable, reports may be sent twice a week.
- Representatives sent from the center to the provinces will sign official documents on behalf of the Commander-in-Chief.
- In the event of an emergency or if one of the nearby commanders is pressed by the enemy, the closest commanders must immediately rush to provide assistance with as many forces as possible.
- In enemy-occupied cities and areas, if enemy forces are strong, they should be contained through siege to weaken them; always keep enemy positions under surveillance; and carry out raids on enemy units passing through.
- Destroy enemy communication tools such as telegraphs, telephones, and wires.
- Act forcefully against enemy spy organizations and punish them severely. However, those who confess their wrongdoings to us and show repentance should be forgiven.
- Treat captured prisoners with kindness.
- The command of all military and political operations will be entrusted to Enver Pasha.
In accordance with the decisions made at the 15 April 1922 congress, Enver Pasha established local and civil administrations in these areas and stationed a portion of his troops in the mentioned locations to maintain control and security.[13][14][15][16] They have also declared the Independent Islamic Republic of Turkestan (also called Turkestan Provisional Government)[17] in Samarkand with Osman hoca as the President of Bukhara, electing Shir Muhammad, commander-in-chief of the Islamic Armies, as its president.[18][19] Abdul hamid as war minister And Ali Riza as Deputy War Minister.[17] The state was based on the principles of private ownership and rule by Shari'a law.[20] The government established by Shir Muhammad Bek relocated its center five times within three months, moving to Samarkand, Namangan, Osh, Margilan, and Naryn.[21][22] The congress, attended by representatives including Cora Hoca from Kabul, decided to organize regular military units in liberated areas of Eastern Bukhara, prepare local populations for combat, assign commanders to lead revolutionary actions in each region, and levy taxes if resources were insufficient. The congress consisted of 16 measures, with the final one granting Enver Pasha unanimous authority over all military and political actions. He was formally given a seal reading: "Damad-ı Halifet’ül Müslimin, Emir-i Leşker-i İslâm Seyyid Enver" (“Son-in-law of the Caliph of the Muslims, Commander of the Islamic Army, Seyyid Enver”), securing the support of the national movement leadership.[23][24]
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Constitution of the Turkestan Provisional Government[25][26][27]
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SECTION I
Article 1 – Between 1868 and 1883, under Tsar Alexander II and generals such as Perovskiy, Chernayev, Kaufmann, Skobelev, and Kuropatkin, Russian forces invaded Turkestan, defeating the local population and trampling the political and cultural values of Muslims.
Article 2 – After the conquest, fertile lands were distributed among Russian settlers. During Tsar Nicholas II's reign, “Service Centers for Migrants” were established, transferring the lands of nomadic Turkestan populations to the Tsar and gifting them to incoming Russian peasants. The Russian administration sought not only to economically subjugate Muslims but also to keep them socially backward. Measures were taken to make Muslims perpetual subjects of Russia, including denying them education, excluding them from government positions, and appointing corrupt local officials who served Russian interests. Muslim property was gradually seized.
Article 3 – In 1917, Tsar Nicholas was overthrown by revolution, granting the people of Turkestan their rights. Representatives of 95% of Turkestan Muslims declared the Turkestan National Autonomous Government at a congress in Khokand. The Russian forces, representing only 5% of the population, tried to dissolve the government by force and arrest its members.
Article 4 – After assuming power, the communists intensified oppression, seized movable and immovable property, and ignored the rights of Muslims. Soviet forces burned and looted cities and villages. Leaders such as Kolesov, Kazakov, Uspenskiy, Safarov, Konovalov, Frunze, Sokolnikov, and Buki destroyed Bukhara and Khokand in 1918 and later Fergana. In September 1920, they looted Bukhara and transported its wealth to Moscow.
Article 5 – The Soviet “Turk Commission” removed competent Turkestan officials from government positions and replaced them with unqualified and corrupt individuals, calling them representatives of Muslims and corrupting the population.
Article 6 – For four years, Soviet authorities labeled freedom fighters abroad as “thieves” or “bandits” and justified attacks, plundering Fergana, and burning homes of lower and middle-class citizens.
Article 7 – They interfered with religion and Sharia, abolishing the Kadılık judicial institution.
SECTION II
Article 8 – Representing 95% of the Muslim Turkestan population, the second congress addressed the issues above, declared independence, and resolved to uphold justice even at the cost of blood.
Article 9 – Congress members confirmed the truth of the points in Section I. If the Soviet government does not change policy, recognize the government, and restore political and cultural rights, Muslims of Turkestan will continue resistance by all means, armed or unarmed.
Article 10 – Bolsheviks in Turkestan who seized power through fraud and force will be declared traitors, plunderers, and bandits.
Article 11 – After four years of war and bloodshed, the government declared by this congress is legally recognized as the Turkestan Government.
Article 12 – This government will be called the Turkestan Turk Independent Islamic Republic.
Article 13 – Full administration of the Turkestan territories, including Sir Darya, Fergana, Samarkand, Yedisu, Kapsi, and Amu Darya regions, will be under this new government.
SECTION III
Article 14 – When the Soviet government is dissolved in Turkestan, this new government will immediately hold a congress in Tashkent to review prior decisions and laws and implement them if approved. The congress will also organize the government and administrative mechanisms.
Article 15 – For every 5,000 people aged 18+, one representative will be elected. National minorities under government authority are proportionally represented and can participate in forming the government. Members of the Bolshevik party, Cheka agents, or anyone opposing Turkestan authorities are excluded from voting or being elected.
SECTION IV
Article 16 – National minorities living under the majority government may live according to their customs and establish schools teaching in their native language.
Article 17 – All faiths and sects are autonomous and have equal rights.
Article 18 – All peoples under the majority government are equally affected by state income and expenditures.
Article 19 – Domestic and foreign trade is largely free.
Article 20 – Every citizen may sell personal property to another citizen.
Article 21 – Foreign nationals may not own real estate but may lease it for up to ten years.
Article 22 – Property seized during the Russian government period will be returned to previous owners. Land occupied under cooperative rules will remain with Turkestan residents.
Article 23 – Mountains, forests, underground resources, and undeveloped rural lands belong to the state, which may lease them to foreign powers.
Article 24 – Nomadic lands are distributed among communities for use.
Article 25 – Unaddressed land issues will be discussed at future congresses.
SECTION V
Article 26 – The provisional government consists of 15 members.
Article 27 – From these 15, an executive committee of a president, vice president, and general secretary is formed to manage state affairs in the capital.
Article 28 – Five of the remaining 12 members will serve as military leaders in Fergana's five regions.
Article 29 – The other seven members will serve as ministers: 1. War, 2. Foreign Affairs, 3. Interior/Post/Telegraph, 4. Education, 5. Finance, 6. Justice, 7. Transport.
Article 30 – The executive committee may convene to pass cabinet decisions as needed.
Article 31 – Ministries may implement projects only with executive committee approval.
Article 32 – Once the enemy is defeated, the government will be based in Tashkent.
SECTION VI
Article 33 – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs will immediately send envoys abroad to promote the decisions and administration, secure recognition, and negotiate treaties if necessary.
Article 34 – A copy of this directive will be formally sent to the Soviet government.
Article 35 – Anyone who does not recognize this government will be considered a counter-revolutionary.
SECTION VII
Article 36 – The congress will appoint officials for the following positions:
- President
- Vice President
- General Secretary 4–8. Military leaders for Namangan, Andijan, Margilan, Khokand, and Osh
- War Minister
- Foreign Minister
- Interior/Post/Telegraph Minister
- Justice Minister
- Education Minister
- Finance Minister
- Transport Minister
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Aftermath
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