Knowledge

Knowledge is the collection of facts, skills, and understanding that people gain through learning, experience, thinking, or discovery. It can come from things we are taught, things we figure out ourselves, or things we observe in the world. Some knowledge is easy to explain, like facts in textbooks or math formulas, this is called explicit knowledge. Other knowledge is harder to put into words, like how to ride a bike or perform surgery, this is called tacit knowledge. It lives in our actions, habits, and personal experiences.^[1] In philosophy, knowledge has often been defined as “justified true belief.” This means that for someone to know something, they must believe it, have good reasons for believing it, and it must actually be true. However, some problems, like the “Gettier cases”, show that this definition might not always work. These cases suggest someone can have a belief that is true and has reasons behind it, but still not really have knowledge. Because of this, other ideas like reliabilism (trusting reliable ways of knowing) and virtue epistemology (focusing on intellectual character) were developed to better explain what knowledge really is.^[2]

The owl of Athena, a symbol of knowledge in the Western world

There are different kinds of knowledge. Propositional knowledge is “knowing that” something is true, like knowing that water boils at 100°C.^[3] Procedural knowledge is “knowing how” to do something, like solving a puzzle or coding.^[4] Experiential knowledge is “knowing by experience,” like recognizing a friend’s voice or knowing how a certain food tastes.^[5] Each of these kinds uses different parts of the brain and different types of thinking. The study of knowledge is called epistemology. It looks at questions like “Where does knowledge come from?” and “What can we really know?” Different thinkers have different ideas.^[6] Empiricists believe knowledge comes from what we see, hear, and touch.^[7] Rationalists believe we are born with some ideas and use reason to gain knowledge.^[8] Constructivists think we build knowledge ourselves through experience, culture, and learning from others.^[9]

Knowledge grows and improves through careful research methods like the scientific method. This includes testing ideas, sharing results with other scientists (peer review), and checking if experiments can be repeated. These steps help make sure knowledge is reliable.^[10] But in areas like art or ethics, people may have different opinions or values, so knowledge can be more personal or open to interpretation.^[11] Societies keep and share knowledge in many ways. Universities, libraries, and the internet store a huge amount of information. Other ways, like storytelling, traditions, or learning from elders, are especially important in cultures that do not rely as much on writing. These methods help pass down useful knowledge from one generation to the next.^[12]

In information science, there’s a difference between data, information, and knowledge. Data is raw facts with no meaning, like numbers on a screen. Information is when that data is organized to make sense. Knowledge is when the information is put into context so that it can help someone make a decision or take action. For example, knowing it’s 35°C outside is information; understanding that it is too hot to play outside for long without water is knowledge.^[13] Neuroscience has found that knowledge is stored in networks of neurons. The cortex and hippocampus are two key areas that help us remember things.^[14] Sleep, emotions, and how we learn something can all affect how well we remember and use knowledge later.^[15] For example, if something is exciting or emotional, you are more likely to remember it.^[16] In artificial intelligence (AI), teaching computers to “know” things is a big challenge. Old systems used strict rules to solve problems, like expert systems. Newer models, like neural networks, try to imitate how human brains work by learning patterns and relationships in data.^[17] However, even the best AI today does not really understand things like people do. It cannot think about its own thoughts or reflect on what it knows.^[18]

Knowledge can belong to individuals or groups. In companies or teams, knowledge management is used to organize what people know and help everyone share and use that knowledge well.^[19] Techniques like knowledge audits and communities of practice help keep useful skills from being lost when people leave or retire.^[20] Knowledge is not always neutral or free. In history, powerful groups have tried to control what others are allowed to know. For example, the Catholic Church once banned books that said the Earth moves around the Sun.^[21] Today, algorithms on social media can create “echo chambers” where people only see information they agree with.^[22] This shows that knowledge can be used for power, control, or influence.^[23]

Religion and knowledge

Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.

In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.^[24] In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).

In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God ^{[ 2:239]} and various hadith encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'.