Transoxiana

Transoxiana (Latin: Transoxiana; Persian: ماوراءالنهر; Uzbek: Movarounnahr) is the historic name for the land between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers in Central Asia. The name means "beyond the river" in Latin, referring to lands beyond the Oxus (Amu Darya). In Persian and Arabic, it was called *Mā warāʾ al-nahr* ("land beyond the river").

Map of Transoxiana between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers

Today, this area is mostly in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan, and parts of Kyrgyzstan. Transoxiana was an important part of the Silk Road, with famous cities like Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, and Tashkent.

Ancient times

In ancient history, Transoxiana was part of Sogdiana and Bactria. Alexander the Great conquered the region in the 4th century BC.^[1] Later it was ruled by the Seleucid Empire, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and the Kushan Empire.

Middle Ages

In the 7th and 8th centuries, Arab armies conquered Transoxiana. Islam spread quickly, and cities like Samarkand and Bukhara became centers of learning.^[2] The Samanid dynasty ruled in the 9th and 10th centuries, making Bukhara a center of Persian literature and science. Later, the Karakhanid dynasty and the Khwarazmian dynasty controlled the region.

Mongol period

In 1220–1221, the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana. Cities like Bukhara and Samarkand were destroyed.^[3] Trade continued under Mongol rule, but many people were killed.

Timurid period

In the 14th century, Timur (Tamerlane) made Samarkand his capital. He built a large empire and made Transoxiana a center of art and science. His grandson Ulugh Beg built an observatory in Samarkand.^[4]

Early modern period

In the 16th century, Uzbek tribes took control of Transoxiana. They founded the Khanate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva, and later the Kokand Khanate. These states ruled until the 19th century.^[5]

Russian period

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire invaded Central Asia. By 1876, Transoxiana was part of Russian Turkestan. Russian rule brought railways, cotton farming, and new cities, but also uprisings and resistance.^[6]

Soviet period

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Transoxiana became part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic. During the Soviet Union, the region was used for cotton farming and industry.^[7]

Modern times

Today, Transoxiana is divided between Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. The cities of Samarkand and Bukhara are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.^[8]