阿斯達文明

 阿斯達文明（粵拼：aa3 si1 daak6 man4 ming4） （納華特文：Aztēc）係一個喺14世紀到16世紀初嘅墨西哥古文明。佢哋喺1325年起咗一個好大嘅人工島，叫特諾奇提特蘭，係文明嘅開始。直到1521年，西班牙人就用火器同天花病毒滅咗呢個文明。

阿斯達領土

大約喺中墨西哥嘅後古典時期，大部分民族群體都分享咗中美洲嘅基本文化特徵。所以，許多特徵都唔可以話係專屬於阿茲特克文化。因而，「阿茲特克文明」嘅概念最好理解為一個通用中美洲文明嘅特定視野。^[1] 中墨西哥文化包括玉米嘅種植，貴族（pipiltin）同平民（macehualtin）之間嘅社會分工，一個宗教嘅神祇（包括特斯卡特利波卡、特拉洛克同羽蛇神），以及一個[[阿茲特克曆法|365日嘅xiuhpohualli曆法]]同260日嘅tonalpohualli曆法。特別係對於特諾奇提特蘭嘅墨西卡，佢哋有主神惠提玆羅波奇、雙金字塔複合體同四種陶瓷風格（阿茲特克I至IV）。^[2]

喺13世紀開始，墨西哥谷成為咗人口密集同城市國嘅崛起中心。墨西卡係遲來者，佢哋喺特斯科科湖嘅不利小島上建立咗特諾奇提特蘭，最終成為阿茲特克三聯盟或阿茲特克帝國嘅主導力量。呢個帝國喺後古典時期擴展佢嘅政治霸權，征服咗中美洲其他城市國。佢喺1427年作為特諾奇提特蘭、特斯科科同特拉科潘之間嘅聯盟成立，佢哋聯手打敗咗之前主導墨西哥盆地嘅特帕內克國家阿茲卡波薩爾科。隨著時間推移，特斯科科同特拉科潘喺聯盟中變得次要，特諾奇提特蘭成為主導力量。帝國透過貿易同軍事征服擴展佢嘅影響力。佢從來唔係一個真正控制大規模軍事駐軍嘅領土帝國，而係主要透過安裝友好嘅統治者、建立婚姻聯盟同將帝國主義延伸至佢嘅客戶城市國來主導。^[3] 客戶城市國向阿茲特克皇帝Huey Tlatoani繳納稅款，而唔係貢品^[4]，呢個經濟策略限制咗外圍政體之間嘅溝通同貿易，使佢哋依賴於帝國中心獲取奢侈品。^[5] 帝國嘅政治影響力伸展到中美洲南部，征服咗最南端嘅恰帕斯同瓜地馬拉，跨越中美洲由太平洋到大西洋。

呢個帝國喺1519年達到最大規模，就喺一小隊由赫爾南·科爾特斯領導嘅西班牙征服者到嚟之前。科爾特斯同反對墨西卡嘅城市國結盟，特別係講Nahuatl語嘅特拉斯卡拉人，仲有其他中墨西哥嘅政體，包括佢以前喺三聯盟中嘅盟友特斯科科。喺1521年8月13日特諾奇提特蘭淪陷同皇帝夸烏特莫克被捕之後，西班牙人喺特諾奇提特蘭嘅廢墟上成立咗墨西哥城。之後，佢哋開始征服同納入中美洲人民入西班牙帝國嘅過程。隨著1521年阿茲特克帝國嘅上層結構被摧毀，西班牙人利用阿茲特克帝國建立嘅城市國來統治土著人口，透過佢哋當地嘅貴族。呢啲貴族向西班牙王室宣誓效忠，並且至少名義上皈依基督教，作為回報，佢哋被西班牙王室承認為貴族。貴族作為中介，負責轉交稅款同動員勞工，幫助西班牙殖民統治建立。^[6]

阿茲特克文化同歷史主要透過考古學證據來認識，例如喺墨西哥城著名嘅大廟挖掘出嚟嘅文物；透過土著文獻；以及西班牙征服者如科爾特斯同伯納爾·迪亞斯·德爾卡斯提略提供嘅目擊者報告；尤其係16世紀同17世紀由西班牙神職人員同識字嘅阿茲特克人用西班牙語或Nahuatl語寫嘅阿茲特克文化同歷史描述，例如由方濟各會嘅修士貝爾納迪諾·德·薩哈根同土著阿茲特克情報員合作創作嘅著名插圖雙語（西班牙語同Nahuatl語）嘅弗洛倫丁典籍，分成十二卷。對於了解征服後Nahuas相當重要嘅係，土著文書工作者接受咗訓練，寫Nahuatl語嘅字母文本，主要係為咗喺西班牙殖民統治下嘅地方用途。喺阿茲特克文化嘅巔峰，佢擁有豐富同複雜嘅哲學、神話同宗教傳統，仲有卓越嘅建築同藝術成就。

定義

阿茲特克金屬斧頭刀片。喺歐洲殖民者到來之前，參見： 前哥倫布時期中美洲的冶金

一個大型陶瓷雕像，描繪阿茲特克的鷹戰士

Nahuatl 詞語 aztēcatl (Template:IPA-nah, 單數)^[7] 同 aztēcah (Template:IPA-nah, 複數)^[7] 嘅意思係「來自Aztlán 嘅人」，^[8] Aztlán 係一個傳說中嘅起源地，對幾個中美洲民族都好重要。呢個名詞唔係阿茲特克人自己用嘅內名，但喺唔同族群嘅遷徙故事入面出現，講述咗一班人一齊離開 Aztlán。喺其中一個故事中，Huitzilopochtli，墨西卡嘅守護神，話佢嘅追隨者：「而家，你哋唔再叫 Azteca，你哋依家叫 Mexitin [墨西卡]」。

而家講「阿茲特克」呢個詞，通常專指位於 特斯科科湖 島上嘅墨西卡人（而家就係墨西哥城），佢哋自稱為 Mēxihcah (Template:IPA-nah，包括 特拉特洛爾科 嘅部落)，Tenochcah (Template:IPA-nah，只指特諾奇提特蘭嘅墨西卡人，排除特拉特洛爾科) 或 Cōlhuah (Template:IPA-nah，指佢哋嘅皇室血統，連結到 庫爾瓦坎)。（Smith 1997，p.4） 指出「對好多人成日講，“阿茲特克”呢個詞其實專指特諾奇提特蘭嘅居民（墨西卡人），或者可能係墨西哥谷地嘅居民，呢個高原盆地就係墨西卡人同其他阿茲特克族群嘅家。其實我覺得應該擴展“阿茲特克”嘅定義，包埋附近高原山谷嘅人民，唔好只局限喺墨西哥谷。喺1519年西班牙人到來之前嘅幾個世紀，呢個更廣泛地區嘅人民都講 Nahuatl 語（阿茲特克嘅語言），而且佢哋嘅起源都可以追溯到一個叫 Aztlan 嘅傳說地（Aztlan 係“阿茲特克”嘅詞源，呢個現代標籤其實唔係阿茲特克人自己用嘅）」</ref>（Lockhart 1992，p.1） 指出「我會叫呢班人做 Nahuas，呢個名有時佢哋自己都用，而家喺墨西哥更流行嘅名稱，取代咗阿茲特克。後者有幾個明顯嘅缺點：佢暗示咗一種唔存在嘅準國家統一，集中注意力喺一個短暫嘅帝國聚合，專門同征服前時期有關，根據當時標準，對於除咗墨西卡（即帝國首都特諾奇提特蘭嘅居民）以外嘅任何人使用呢個詞都係不合適，即使呢個係墨西卡嘅主要名稱，但事實上並唔係」</ref>

有時，「阿茲特克」呢個詞都包括特諾奇提特蘭兩個主要盟國城市嘅居民，即係Acolhua 來自 特斯科科 同 Tepanec 來自 Tlacopan，佢哋同墨西卡人一齊組成咗阿茲特克三重聯盟，控制咗通常被稱為「阿茲特克帝國」嘅地區。使用「阿茲特克」呢個詞來形容以特諾奇提特蘭為中心嘅帝國受到咗Robert H. Barlow 嘅批評，佢更偏好用「Culhua-Mexica」呢個名詞，^[9][10]，而Pedro Carrasco 更鐘意用「Tenochca empire」呢個名稱。^[11] Carrasco 甚至講「阿茲特克」呢個詞對理解古代墨西哥嘅民族複雜性同識別我哋研究嘅政治實體嘅主導元素冇咩用處。^[11]

喺其他情況下，「阿茲特克」可以指所有唔同嘅城市國同佢哋嘅人民，佢哋同墨西卡人、Acolhua 同 Tepanecs 共享咗大量嘅民族歷史同文化特徵，並且經常使用 Nahuatl 語作為通用語。例如，Jerome A. Offner 嘅《阿茲特克特斯科科嘅法律與政治》。^[12] 喺呢個意義上，可以討論一個「阿茲特克文明」，包括大部分居住喺中部墨西哥、喺後古典時期嘅人民共同擁有嘅文化模式。^[13] 這種用法可能會將「阿茲特克」呢個詞擴展到所有在文化或政治上被納入阿茲特克帝國主導範疇嘅中部墨西哥群體。^[14][a]

當用嚟描述民族群體嗰陣，「阿茲特克」呢個詞係指幾個喺中美洲後古典時期講 Nahuatl 語嘅民族，特別係墨西卡人，呢個民族喺建立以特諾奇提特蘭為基地嘅霸權帝國中扮演咗重要角色。呢個詞仲擴展到其他與阿茲特克帝國有關嘅民族，例如 Acolhua、Tepanec 同其他被納入帝國嘅族群。查爾斯·吉布森 喺佢嘅研究《西班牙統治下的阿茲特克》（1964）中列舉咗好多喺中部墨西哥嘅族群，包括 Culhuaque、Cuitlahuaque、Mixquica、Xochimilca、Chalca、Tepaneca、Acolhuaque 同墨西卡。^[15]

喺舊時用法中，「阿茲特克」呢個詞普遍用來指現代講 Nahuatl 語嘅民族，因為 Nahuatl 曾經被稱為「阿茲特克語」。最近嘅用法，呢啲民族被稱為Nahua people。^[16][17] 喺語言學上，「阿茲特克語系」呢個詞依然用來指烏托-阿茲特克語（有時候叫做烏托-納瓦爾語）嘅一個分支，包括 Nahuatl 語同佢最近嘅親屬Pochutec 同Pipil。^[18]

對於阿茲特克人嚟講，「阿茲特克」呢個詞並唔係用來指任何特定嘅民族群體內名。相反，呢個詞係一個總稱，用嚟指幾個民族，唔全部都講 Nahuatl，佢哋都聲稱自己有來自傳說中起源地Aztlan嘅血統。亞歷山大·洪堡喺1810年創造咗「阿茲特克」呢個現代用法，作為一個集體詞，適用於所有與墨西卡國家同三重聯盟有貿易、習俗、宗教同語言聯繫嘅人。1843年，隨住William H. Prescott發表有關墨西哥征服歷史嘅著作，呢個詞被大多數人接受，包括19世紀嘅墨西哥學者，佢哋視之為一種區分現今墨西哥人同征服前墨西哥人嘅方法。呢種用法最近幾年成為討論嘅主題，但「阿茲特克」呢個詞依然係更常用嘅。^[19]

政治同社會組織

貴族同平民

内文：阿茲特克社會嘅社會階級、阿茲特克社會同阿茲特克奴隸制

阿茲特克「高貴人士」，佢哋係最高社會階級。

《Codex Mendoza》中一頁，顯示一名平民透過打獲戰俘晉升。每件服裝需要打獲一定數量嘅戰俘才能獲得。

美洲豹戰士制服作為稅收支付方式，來自《Codex Mendoza》

最高階級係 pīpiltin^[b] 或貴族。pilli 嘅地位係世襲，並賦予持有者某啲特權，例如可以穿著特別精緻嘅衣服同享用奢侈品，亦可以擁有土地同指揮平民進行徭役。最有權力嘅貴族稱為領主（納華特文：teuctin），佢哋擁有同控制貴族莊園或房屋，並可以擔任最高政府職位或者軍事領袖。貴族大約佔總人口嘅五個百分比。^[20]

第二階級係 mācehualtin，最初係指農民，但後來擴展到一般低層工作階級。Eduardo Noguera 估計，喺後期只有20%嘅人口專注於農業同食物生產。^[21] 其餘80%嘅社會成員係戰士、工匠同商人。最終，大部分 mācehuallis 係專注於藝術同手工藝。佢哋嘅作品係城市嘅重要收入來源。^[22] Macehualtin 可以變成奴隸（納華特文：tlacotin），例如因為債務或貧窮而被迫賣身服務貴族，但喺阿茲特克人中，奴隸身份唔係世襲。有啲 macehualtin 係無地，直接為領主工作（納華特文：mayehqueh），而大多數平民組織喺 calpollis 入面，令佢哋可以接觸土地同財產。^[23]

平民可以透過展示喺戰爭中嘅英勇表現獲得類似貴族嘅特權。當一名戰士打獲戰俘，佢就會獲得使用某些標誌、武器或服裝嘅權利，隨住佢打獲更多戰俘，佢嘅地位同聲望都會提高。^[24]

家庭同性別

内文：阿茲特克文明入面嘅女性

《Codex Mendoza》一頁，顯示阿茲特克男仔同女仔嘅撫養同教育，佢哋點樣學唔同類型嘅勞動，仲有因為做錯事被嚴厲懲罰

阿茲特克嘅家庭模式係雙邊制，父母兩邊嘅親戚都一樣計算，繼承權可以傳畀仔女，無論係男仔定女仔。呢個意思係女性可以擁有財產，跟男人一樣，所以女性喺經濟上有啲自由。不過，阿茲特克社會好有性別區分，男同女嘅角色分得好清楚。男人要喺屋外工作，做農夫、商人、工匠同戰士，而女性就負責屋企嘅事。但女性都可以做屋外嘅工作，譬如小商販、醫生、祭司同接生婆。戰爭被好重視，係一種高聲望嘅來源，但女性嘅工作比喻上被認為同戰爭一樣重要，對維持世界平衡同取悅神明都好緊要。呢種情況令有啲學者話阿茲特克嘅性別意識唔係一種性別層次，而係性別互補，性別角色雖然分開但係一樣重要。^[25]

喺貴族之中，婚姻聯盟經常用來做政治策略，低級貴族會娶高地位家庭嘅女，呢個地位會繼承畀佢哋嘅仔女。貴族通常都會有幾個老婆，實行一夫多妻制。但喺平民入面，呢啲情況就唔常見，有啲資料話係禁止嘅。^[26]

引述

文獻

一覽

• • Batalla, Juan José (2016). "The Historical Sources: Codices and Chronicles". 出自 Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique Rodríguez-Alegría (編). The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs.第1卷. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.30.
  • Barlow, Robert H. (1945). "Some Remarks On The Term "Aztec Empire"". The Americas. 1 (3): 345–349. doi:10.2307/978159. JSTOR 978159. S2CID 147083453.
  • Barlow, Robert H. (1949). Extent Of The Empire Of Culhua Mexica. University of California Press.
  • Barnett, Ronald A. (2007-11-01). "Mesoamerican religious concepts: Part two". MexConnect. 喺2022-07-20搵到.
  • Beekman, C.S.; Christensen, A.F. (2003). "Controlling for doubt and uncertainty through multiple lines of evidence: A new look at the Mesoamerican Nahua migrations". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 10 (2): 111–164. doi:10.1023/a:1024519712257. S2CID 141990835.
  • Berdan, Frances (1982). The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-055736-1. OCLC 7795704.
  • Berdan, Frances F.; Smith, Michael E. (1996a). "1. Introduction". 出自 Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (編). Aztec Imperial Strategies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-211-4. OCLC 27035231.
  • Berdan, Frances F.; Smith, Michael E. (1996b). "9. Imperial Strategies and Core-Periphery Relations". 出自 Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (編). Aztec Imperial Strategies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-211-4. OCLC 27035231.
  • Berdan, Frances F.; Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1997). The Essential Codex Mendoza. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20454-6.
  • Berdan, Frances (2014). Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. Cambridge University Press.
  • Berdan, F.F. (2016). "Featherworking in the Provinces: A Dispersed Luxury Craft under Aztec Hegemony". Ancient Mesoamerica. 27 (1): 209–219. doi:10.1017/S0956536115000358. S2CID 164771165.
  • Boone, Elizabeth Hill (2000). Stories in Red and Black: Pictorial Histories of the Aztec and Mixtec. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70876-1. OCLC 40939882.
  • Brading, D.A. (1991). The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39130-6.
  • Bright, W. (1990). "'With one lip, with two lips': Parallelism in Nahuatl". Language. 66 (3): 437–452. doi:10.2307/414607. JSTOR 414607.
  • Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. (1998). "The multiple identities of Aztec craft specialists". Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 8 (1): 145–152. doi:10.1525/ap3a.1998.8.1.145.
  • Bueno, Christina (2016). The Pursuit of Ruins: Archaeology, History, and the Making of Modern Mexico. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-5732-8.
  • Burkhart, Louise M. (1997). "Mexican women on the home front". 出自 S Schroeder; S Wood; RS Haskett (編). Indian women of early Mexico. pp. 25–54.
  • Cáceres-Lorenzo, M.T. (2015). "Diffusion trends and Nahuatlisms of American Spanish: Evidence from dialectal vocabularies". Dialectologia et Geolinguistica. 23 (1): 50–67. doi:10.1515/dialect-2015-0004. hdl:10553/43280. S2CID 151429590.
  • Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropoical Linguistics, 4. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509427-5. OCLC 32923907.
  • Carrasco, David (2000). City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-4642-5. OCLC 41368255.
  • Carrasco, David (2012). The Aztecs: A very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1953-7938-9.
  • Carrasco, Pedro (1999). The Tenochca Empire of Ancient Mexico: The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, and Tlacopan. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3144-3.
  • Chipman, Donald E. (2005). Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty Under Spanish Rule, 1520–1700. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72597-3.
  • Cline, Howard F. (1973). "Selected Nineteenth-Century Mexican Writers on Ethnohistory". 出自 H.F. Cline (編). Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Part 2. pp. 370–393. ISBN 978-0-292-70153-3.
  • Cline, Sarah (2000). "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico". The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Mesoamerica Part 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–222. ISBN 978-0-521-65204-9.
  • Cooper Alarcón, Daniel (1997). The Aztec palimpsest: Mexico in the Modern Imagination. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
  • Diel, Lori B. (2005). "Women and political power: The inclusion and exclusion of noblewomen in Aztec pictorial histories". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 47 (1): 82–106. doi:10.1086/resv47n1ms20167660. S2CID 157991841.
  • Elson, Cristina; Smith, Michael E. (2001). "Archaeological deposits from the Aztec New Fire Ceremony". Ancient Mesoamerica. 12 (2): 157–174. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.723.2681. doi:10.1017/S0956536101122078. S2CID 25246053.
  • Franco, Jean (2004). "The return of Coatlicue: Mexican nationalism and the Aztec past". Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies. 13 (2): 205–219. doi:10.1080/1356932042000246977. S2CID 162346920.
  • Frazier, E.G. (2006). "Préstamos del náhuatl al español mexicano". Hesperia: Anuario de Filología Hispánica. 9: 75–86.
  • Galindo Leal, Carlos; Sarukhán Kermez, José; Wright, David; Carr, Charles (2017). "Una historia natural del emblema nacional de México". 出自 Cora Ma. A. Falero Ruiz (編). Escudo Nacional: flora, fauna y biodiversidad. México City: Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Secretaría de Cultura, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Museo Nacional de Antropología. pp. 42–61.
  • Gibson, Charles (1964). The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Gillespie, Susan D. (1989). The Aztec Kings: the Construction of Rulership in Mexica History. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1095-5. OCLC 19353576.
  • Greene, Doyle (2012). Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and Similar Films, 1957–1977. McFarland.
  • Hajovsky, Patrick Thomas (2015). On the Lips of Others: Moteuczoma's Fame in Aztec Monuments and Rituals. University of Texas Press.
  • Harner, Michael (1977). "The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice". American Ethnologist. 4 (1): 117–135. doi:10.1525/ae.1977.4.1.02a00070. S2CID 144736919.
  • Haskett, R.S. (1991). Indigenous rulers: An ethnohistory of town government in colonial Cuernavaca. University of New Mexico Press.
  • Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Civilization of the American Indian series. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2121-5. OCLC 17106411.
  • Hassig, Ross (2001). Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73139-4. OCLC 44167649.
  • Hassig, Ross (2016). Polygamy and the Rise and Demise of the Aztec Empire. University of New Mexico Press.
  • Haugen, J.D. (2009). "Borrowed borrowings: Nahuatl loan words in English". Lexis. Journal in English Lexicology. 3. 原先內容歸檔喺12 January 2023. 喺19 September 2019搵到.
  • Helland, J. (1990). "Aztec Imagery in Frida Kahlo's Paintings: Indigenity and Political Commitment". Woman's Art Journal. 11 (2): 8–13.
  • Hirth, Kenneth G. (2016). The Aztec Economic World. Cambridge University Press.
  • Himmerich y Valencia, Robert (1991). The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521–1555. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73108-0.
  • Hodge, Mary G.; Neff, Hector; Blackman, M. James; Minc, Leah D. (1993). "Black-on-orange ceramic production in the Aztec empire's heartland". Latin American Antiquity. 4 (2): 130–157. doi:10.2307/971799. JSTOR 971799. S2CID 163893131.
  • Humboldt, Alexander von (2014). Views of the Cordilleras and Monuments of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas [1810]: A Critical Edition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-86506-5.
  • Isaac, B.L. (2005). "Aztec cannibalism: Nahua versus Spanish and mestizo accounts in the Valley of Mexico". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1017/s0956536105050030. S2CID 162825038.
  • Isaac, B.L. (2002). "Cannibalism among Aztecs and Their Neighbors: Analysis of the 1577–1586" Relaciones Geográficas" for Nueva España and Nueva Galicia Provinces". Journal of Anthropological Research. 58 (2): 203–224. doi:10.1086/jar.58.2.3631036. S2CID 163993224.
  • Karttunen, Frances; Lockhart, James (1980). "La estructura de la poesía náhuatl vista por sus variantes". Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl. 14: 15–64.
  • Keen, Benjamin (1971). The Aztec image in Western thought. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0698-2.
  • Keen, B. (2001). "Review of: City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization". The Americas. 57 (4): 593–595. doi:10.1353/tam.2001.0036. S2CID 144513257.
  • Kubler, George (1942). "Population Movements in Mexico, 1520–1600". Hispanic American Historical Review. 22 (4): 606–643. doi:10.2307/2506768. JSTOR 2506768.
  • Lacadena, Alfonso (2008). "A Nahuatl Syllabary" (PDF). The PARI Journal. VIII (4). 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺21 January 2021. 喺1 July 2017搵到.
  • Leon-Portilla, Miguel (1963). Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Náhuatl Mind. Davis, Jack E.翻譯. University of Oklahoma Press.
  • León-Portilla, Miguel (1992). Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2441-4. OCLC 243733946.
  • León-Portilla, Miguel (2000). "Aztecas, disquisiciones sobre un gentilicio". Estudios de la Cultura Nahuatl. 31: 307–313.
  • León-Portilla, Miguel (2002). Bernardino de Sahagun, First Anthropologist. Mauricio J. Mixco (trans.) (第Originally published as Bernardino de Sahagún: Pionero de la Antropología 1999, UNAM.版). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3364-5. OCLC 47990042.
  • Lockhart, James (1992). The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1927-8.
  • López Austin, Alfredo (2001). "Aztec". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture.第1卷. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–72. ISBN 978-0-19-514255-6.
  • López Luján, Leonardo (2005). The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano翻譯 (第Revised版). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2958-5.
  • Maffie, James (n.d.). "Aztec Philosophy". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. 原先內容歸檔喺12 January 2023. 喺2022-07-20搵到.
  • Martz, Louis L.; Lawrence, D. H. (1998). Quetzalcoatl. New Directions Books. ISBN 978-0-8112-1385-1.
  • Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1988). The Great Temple of the Aztecs: Treasures of Tenochtitlan. New Aspects of Antiquity series. Doris Heyden (trans.). New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-39024-5. OCLC 17968786.
  • Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1987). "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor". 出自 Hill Boone, Elizabeth (編). The Aztec Templo Mayor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 188–189.
  • Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (2017). "Ancient Stone Sculptures: In Search of the Mexica Past". 出自 Nichols, Deborah L; Rodríguez-Alegría, Enrique (編). The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs.第1卷. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.1.
  • Matthew, Laura E; Oudijk, Michel R. (2007). Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica. University of Oklahoma Press.
  • McCaa, Robert (1995). "Spanish and Nahuatl Views on Smallpox and Demographic Catastrophe in Mexico". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 25 (3): 397–431. doi:10.2307/205693. JSTOR 205693. S2CID 145465056.
  • McCaa, Robert (1997). "The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution (preliminary draft)". 原先內容歸檔喺12 July 2017. 喺17 February 2018搵到.
  • Miller, Mary; Taube, Karl (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05068-2. OCLC 27667317.
  • Minc, Leah D. (2017). "Pottery and the Potter's Craft in the Aztec Heartland". 出自 Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique Rodríguez-Alegría (編). The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs.第1卷. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.013.13.
  • Montes de Oca, Mercedes (2013). Los difrasismos en el náhuatl de los siglos XVI y XVII. México City: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México.
  • Mora, Carl J. (2005). Mexican Cinema: Reflections of a Society, 1896–2004 (第3版). McFarland.
  • Morfín, Lourdes Márquez; Storey, Rebecca (2016). "Population History in Precolumbian and Colonial Times". The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs. p. 189.
  • Mundy, B.E. (2015). The death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the life of México City. University of Texas Press.
  • Mundy, B.E. (2014). "Place-Names in Mexico-Tenochtitlan". Ethnohistory. 61 (2): 329–355. doi:10.1215/00141801-2414190.
  • Nichols, Deborah L.; Rodríguez-Alegría, Enrique (2017). "Introduction: Aztec Studies: Trends and Themes". 出自 Deborah L. Nichols; Enrique Rodríguez-Alegría (編). The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs. Oxford University Press.
  • Nicholson, H.B. (1971). "Major Sculpture in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico". 出自 Gordon F. Ekholm; Ignacio Bernal (編). Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 10 & 11 "Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica". University of Texas Press. pp. 92–134.
  • Nicholson, H.B. (1981). "Polychrome on Aztec Sculpture". 出自 Elizabeth Hill Boone (編). Painted Architecture and Polychrome Monumental Sculpture in Mesoamerica: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 10th to 11th October, 1981. Dumbarton Oaks.
  • Nicholson, H.B.; Berger, Rainer (1968). "Two Aztec Wood Idols: Iconographic and Chronologic Analysis". Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology. 5 (5): 1–3, 5–28. JSTOR 41263409.
  • Nichols, Deborah L. and Enrique Rodríguez-Alegría, eds. The Oxford Handbook of The Aztecs. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2017.
  • Noguera Auza, Eduardo (1974). "Sitios de ocupación en la periferia de Tenochtitlán y su significado histórico-arqueológico". Anales de Antropología. 11: 53–87. doi:10.22201/iia.24486221e.1974.0.23307 (失效 5 September 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of 9月 2024 (link)
  • Nowotny, Karl Anton (2005). Tlacuilolli: Style and Contents of the Mexican Pictorial Manuscripts with a Catalog of the Borgia Group. George A. Evertt and Edward B. Sisson翻譯. University of Oklahoma Press.
  • Offner, Jerome A. (1983). Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23475-7.
  • Ortíz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1983). "Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris". American Anthropologist. 85 (2): 403–406. doi:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00130. OCLC 1479294. S2CID 162218640.
  • Ortíz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1990). Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1562-5. OCLC 20798977.
  • Ouweneel, A. (1995). "From tlahtocayotl to gobernadoryotl: a critical examination of indigenous rule in 18th-century central Mexico". American Ethnologist. 22 (4): 756–785. doi:10.1525/ae.1995.22.4.02a00060.
  • Pasztory, Esther (1983). Aztec Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers.
  • Peterson, Jeanette Favrot (2014). Visualizing Guadalupe. University of Texas Press. pp. 176, 227. ISBN 978-0-292-73775-4.
  • Pilcher, J.M. (2017). Planet taco: A global history of Mexican food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 184–185.
  • Prem, Hanns J. (1992). "Aztec Writing". 出自 Victoria R. Bricker; Patricia A. Andrews (編). Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Epigraphy. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 53–69. ISBN 978-0-292-77650-0. OCLC 23693597.
  • Quiñones Keber, Eloise (1996). "Humboldt and Aztec Art". Colonial Latin American Review. 5 (2): 277–297. doi:10.1080/10609169608569894.
  • Rodríguez-Alegría, E. (2017). "A City Transformed: From Tenochtitlan to Mexico City in the Sixteenth Century". 出自 Nichols, Deborah L; Rodríguez-Alegría, Enrique (編). The Oxford Handbook of the Aztecs.第1卷. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341962.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-934196-2.
  • Sahagún, Bernardino de (1577). Historia general de las cosas de nueva España [General History of the Things of New Spain (The Florentine Codex)] (西班牙文). 原先內容歸檔喺2 December 2020. 喺2020-01-31搵到 –透過World Digital Library.
  • Sanders, William T. (1992) [1976]. "The Population of the Central Mexican Symbiotic Region, the Basin of Mexico, and the Teotihuacan Valley in the Sixteenth-century". 出自 William Denevan (編). The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (修訂版). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 85–150.
  • Sanders, William T. (1971). "Settlement Patterns in Central Mexico". Handbook of Middle American Indians.第3卷. pp. 3–44.
  • Smith, Michael E. (1984). "The Aztlan Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?" (PDF). Ethnohistory. 31 (3): 153–186. doi:10.2307/482619. JSTOR 482619. OCLC 145142543. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺8 October 2018. 喺4 July 2006搵到.
  • Smith, Michael E. (1996). "The Strategic Provinces". 出自 Frances Berdan; Richard Blanton; Elizabeth Hill Boone; Mary G. Hodge; Michael E. Smith; Emily Umberger (編). Aztec Imperial Strategies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 137–151. ISBN 978-0-88402-211-4. OCLC 27035231.
  • Smith, Michael E. (1997). The Aztecs (第1版). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-23015-1. OCLC 48579073.
  • Smith, Michael E. (2000). "Aztec City-States". 出自 Mogens Herman Hansen (編). A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. pp. 581–595.
  • Smith, Michael E. (2008). Aztec City-State Capitals. University Press of Florida.
  • Smith, Michael E. (2005). "Life in the Provinces of the Aztec Empire" (PDF). Scientific American. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺21 January 2021. 喺20 April 2006搵到.
  • Soustelle, Jacques (1970). Daily Life of the Aztecs, on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804707213.
  • Taube, Karl A. (1993). Aztec and Maya Myths (第4版). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78130-6. OCLC 29124568.
  • Taube, Karl (2012). "Creation and Cosmology:Gods and Mythic Origins in Ancient Mesoamerica". 出自 Deborah L. Nichols; Christopher A. Pool (編). The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford University Press. pp. 741–752.
  • Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio (1996). Mexico at the World's Fairs. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20267-2.
  • Tomlinson, G. (1995). "Ideologies of Aztec song". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 48 (3): 343–379. doi:10.2307/3519831. JSTOR 3519831.
  • Townsend, Richard F. (2009). The Aztecs (第3rd, rev.版). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28791-0.
  • Van Essendelft, W. (2018). "What's in a name? A typological analysis of Aztec placenames". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 19: 958–967. Bibcode:2018JArSR..19..958V. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.01.019. S2CID 189685291.
  • Whittaker, G. (2009). "The principles of nahuatl writing". Göttinger Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. 16: 47–81.
  • Whitmore, Thomas M. (1992). Disease and Death in Early Colonial Mexico: Simulating Amerindian Depopulation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  • Witton, M.P.; Martill, D.M.; Loveridge, R.F. (2010). "Clipping the Wings of Giant Pterosaurs: Comments on Wingspan Estimations and Diversity". Acta Geoscientica Sinica. 31 (Supplement 1): 79–81.
  • Wolfe, Bertram D. (2000). The Fabulous Life of Diego Rivera. Cooper Square Press.
  • Zender, Marc (2008). "One Hundred and Fifty Years of Nahuatl Decipherment" (PDF). The PARI Journal. VIII (4). 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺21 January 2021. 喺1 July 2017搵到.