Ghaznavid campaigns in Persia

The Ghaznavid campaigns in Persia, (modern-day Iran) was a series of expeditions and conquests led by Ghaznavid dynasty based in Ghazni. The Ghaznavids under Mahmud of Ghazni and Mas'ud, expanded their empire into Persia, targeting regions of Makran, Ray, Hamadan, Ishfahan, Tabaristan, Jibal, Fars, Kurdistan adjoining land of Sistan, Khorasan and parts of northern Persia. The conquests mostly occurred between 1026-1033 except Tabaristan which was subdued in 1012 AD. These campaigns were driven by ambitions of territorial expansion and spread of Sunni Islam, often at the expense of local Persian dynasties like the Buyids, Ziyarids and Sallarid dynasty also secured regions through diplomacy.

Ghaznavid conquests in Persia
Territories under Ghaznavid suzerainty following Persian campaigns
Date 1012, 1026–34 Location Persia (modern-day Iran) Result Ghaznavid victory Territorial changes Ray, Hamadan, Isfahan, Tabaristan, Jibal annexed by Ghaznavids.
Belligerents
Ghaznavids	Buyids Sallarids Ziyarids Rawadids
Commanders and leaders
Mahmud of Ghazni # Arslan Jadhib Mas'ud I Hajib 'Ali Marzuban b. Hasan Abu Sahl Hamdawni	Qabus Majd al-Dawla (POW) Abu Dulaf Manuchihr  Ala al-Dawla Muhammad Ibrahim b. Marzuban
Strength
8,000 cavalry[a]	1,500[b]

Background

Mahmud's initial policy with the Buyids was one of non-intervention until his final year.^[3] In 1016-17, he sent military aid to the rebellious Buyid governor of Kerman, Qawam al-Dawla, against his brother Sultan al-Dawla of Fars, but the troops failed to restore Qawam’s position. Later, when another succession dispute arose in Kerman, Mahmud chose not to intervene.^[4]

After Fakhr al-Dawla's death in 997 AD, Majd al-Dawla acceded the Buyid throne at the age of nine. His mother Sayyida became the regent of the empire. In 1028, after his mother's death Majd became the de facto ruler. His incapability and lack of administration led decline of Buyid rule.^[5] According to contemporary historian Bayhaqi, Ghaznavid vizier Ahmad Maymandi asked Sultan Mahmud regarding the non-intervene policy towards the Buyids. In which he replied if a man ruled Ray, he would need a permanent army in Nishapur to counter the Buyid threat. However, with a woman in power, he perceived no significant threat to Khorasan.^[6]

Conflicts with Ziyarids

The region of Tabaristan during Iranian Intermezzo

Ziyarid emir Qabus who ruled Jurjan and Tabaristan, succeeded his brother in 978 but was defeated by the Buyid emir Mu'ayyidad al-Dawlah in 981, forcing him to seek refuge with the Samanid amir Nuh. Despite attempts, amir Nuh couldn’t restore Qabus’s rule. In 997, Sabuktigin promised to help Qabus regain his kingdom but shortly died. His successor sultan Mahmud offered support but demanded quick repayment for the campaign’s costs, which Qabus refused as he was in war with his brother for throne. After death of Ziyarid amir of Tabaristan Fakhr al-Dawla, Qabus retook Jurjan in 998 and expanded into Tabaristan and Jibal. In 1011–12, his army deposed him for cruelty, installing his son Manuchihr. Mahmud supported the other son of Qabus, Dara, to claim the throne, but Manuchihr secured his position by acknowledging Mahmud as overlord, paying 50,000 dinars annually. Following the acceptance of overlord, Mahmud married off one of his daughter to Manuchihr who remained under him, aiding Mahmud’s campaigns and hosting him in Jurjan in 1029.^[7][8][9]

After Mahmud captured Ray from Buyids, Manuchihr, fearing an attack, turned hostile, blocking routes to Ghazna. Enraged, Mahmud marched on Jurjan, prompting Manuchihr to cease and pay a 500,000 dinar fine. Mahmud forgave him and returned to Ghazna. Manuchihr died soon after in 1029, one year before Mahmud.^[10] After Manuchihr's death in 1030, his son Anushirwan had to pay another levy of 500,000 dinars in order to secure recognition from Ghazna.^[11]

Conflicts with Makran

The historical region of Makran in present-day Iran and Pakistan, comprised the strip of sea-coast from the Gulf of Oman to Sindh and a part of Kerman and Balochistan. In 10th century the kingdom of Makran^[c] was a vassal state of the Buyid dynasty of Kerman.^[13] Following the decline of Buyid dominance, Makran shifted it's alliance to Sabuktigin and then Mahmud.^[12] In 1025–26 AD, during Sultan Mahmud’s absence on the Somnath expedition, rule of Makran Ma'dun died, leaving sons Isa and Abu'l-Mu'askar to vie for succession. Abu'l-Mu'askar lost and fled to Sistan. In 1026 AD, he sought help of Sultan Mahmud in Ghazni. Fearing Mahmud’s support for his brother, Isa acknowledged Mahmud as overlord, securing his rule over Makran and agreeing to support Abu’l-Mu’askar. In 1029 AD, when Mahmud was busy in conflict with the Seljuks, Isa declared independence.^[12] Mas'ud who was in charge of Persian territories replaced Isa and installed Abu'l-Mu'askar.^[13]

Campaigns in Persia

Mahmud's conflict Buyid dynasty

In 1029 AD, the Daylamite troops terrorised Ray and threatened the incapable ruler Majd al-Dawla, who sought Sultan Mahmud’s help. Seizing the opportunity, Mahmud sent 8,000 cavalry under Hajib 'Ali to capture Majd al-Dawla. Mahmud himself marched to Jurjan to block Seljuk interference. In May 1029, Majd al-Dawla, welcomed 'Ali who put him in surveillance. He then captured Rey. Mahmud entered the city on May 26, 1029, without resistance, seizing immense wealth, including 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000 dinars in coin money, over 30,000 dinars gold and silver vessels.^[14] Majd al-Dawla and his son Abu Dulaf was sent to prison in India.^[15] Successfully annexing Rey and Jibal.^[14] The Ghaznavid army overrun then Dailam, Kurdistan and Fars against other local rulers.^[3]

Conflict with Sallarid dynasty

Map of Azerbaijan, known as Shirvan during Iranian Intermezzo

After capture of Buyid territories, neighbouring states offered allegiance except Ibrahim b. Marzuban of Dailam (commonly known as Salar), ruler of Zanjan, Abhar, Sarjahān and Shahrazūr. For his hostility Sultan Mahmud sent a large army against him under Marzuban b. Hasan, who was an old rival of the Sallarid and had taken refuge with the Ghaznavids. Marzuban making an alliance with some of the Daylamite chieftains, advanced against the Salar and captured Qazwin. After Mahmud returned to Ghazni Salar defeating Marzuban retook Qazwin.^[16]

Mahmud placed Masud incharge of newly conquered territories and tasked him with subduing remaining Buyid territories. Masud, accompanied by Marzuban, besieged the Salar at the fortified stronghold of Sarjahan. Masud bribed the Sallarid officers to reveal weak point of the fort. The Salar left with no choice engaged the besiegers in battle on 13 September 1029 but was defeated and captured. His son subsequently submitted and agreed to pay tribute. Mas'ud then moved to subdued Hamadan and Isfahan.^[17] The neighbouring country of Azerbaijan under Rawadid dynasty was also forced to pay tribute to Ghazni.^[18]

Mas'ud's war with Buyids

Campaign of Hamadan and Isfahan

Mas'ud, after returning to Rey, continued the conquest of Buyid territories, targeting Kakuyids of Hamadan and Isfahan. He captured Hamadan and then advanced to Isfahan, which he seized in January 1030 from Ala'u'd-Dawla Kakuwih, (governor of Hamadan and Isfahan) also known as Ibn Kakuwih. Through the Caliph’s mediation, influenced by Ala al-Dawla's kinsman Jalalu’d-Dawlah in Baghdad, Mas'ud permitted Ala al-Dawla to govern Isfahan as his deputy, contingent on an annual tribute of 20,000 dinars.

On 26 May 1030, Mas'ud learned of his father Sultan Mahmud’s death, prompting him to return to Rey, appoint Hasan-i-Sulaimani as governor, and march to Nishapur to secure the throne amid an anticipated succession dispute with his brother.^[19]

Campaign of Kerman

In 1031 AD, Ghaznavid army under Mas'ud, invaded Kirman but defeated. In 1033 AD Mas'ud seized Buyid province of Kirman but a year later in 1034, 'Imad al-Din Abu Kalijar dispatched an army from Fars, led by his vizier Bahram b. Mafinna, which expelled the Ghaznavid garrison, forcing them to retreat to Nishapur.^[20]

Aftermath

After capture of Rey from Majd al-Dawla, Mahmud carried out campaign against heretical sects. Qarmatians, Batinis, Mazdakites^[21] and Mu‘tazilites. Thousands of adherents were executed, while others were imprisoned and transported to Khorasan. Their residences were searched, confiscating and destroying texts associated with their beliefs. Books aligning with the Sultan's views were transferred to the capital Ghazni.^[17] Mahmud wrote in his fath-nama to the Caliph Al-Qadir spoke of cleansing Jibal of the "infidel Batiniyya and evil-doing innovators"^[22] Ghaznavid rule in central and western Persia was short lived, lasting less than a decade whereas in Rey it lasted only seven years.^[23] The Sallarid and Rawadid dynasty in north-western region of Persia, paid tribute but did not remain under Ghaznavid influence for long. Following Mas'ud's succession Kakuyids overthrew Ghaznavid suzerainty, captured Rey until Ghaznavid governor Abu Sahl Hamdawni drove him away from his capital Ishfahan for two years and seized his minister Ibn Sina's library containing heretical books. In 1033 AD, a Daylamite rebellion in Qazwin and Qum was suppressed.^[24] In 1037-38 AD, Kakuyids under Ala al-Dawla reoccupied Ray killing it's governor Tash-Farash forcing Ghaznavids to abandon it. Coins were minted in the name of Mas'ud until Seljuks captured Rey.^[2][25]

See also

• Ghaznavid campaign in Khorasan
• Ghaznavid conquest of Sistan
• Kara-Khanid invasion of Khorasan
• Ghaznavid-Hindu Shahi conflicts
• Ghaznavid conquest of Khwarazm

Notes

1. only against Buyids of Rey in 1029.^[1]
2. Kakuyid force in 1037 in Rey^[2]
3. based in Turbat present-day Balochistan, Pakistan^[12]