Mahmud of Ghazni - Wikiwand

Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (Persian: ابوالقاسم محمود بن سبکتگین, romanized: Abu al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sabuktigīn; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (محمود غزنوی),^[10] was Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usually known by his honorific title Yamin al-Dawla (یمین‌ الدوله, lit. 'Right Hand of the State'). At the time of his death, his kingdom had been transformed into an extensive military empire, which extended from present-day northwestern Iran proper to the Punjab in the Indian subcontinent, Khwarazm in Transoxiana, and Makran.

Quick Facts Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, Reign ...

Highly Persianized,^[11] Mahmud continued the bureaucratic, political, and cultural customs of his predecessors, the Samanids. He established the ground for a future Persianate state in Punjab, particularly centered on Lahore, a city he conquered.^[12] His capital of Ghazni evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual centre in the Islamic world, almost rivalling the important city of Baghdad. The capital appealed to many prominent figures, such as al-Biruni and Ferdowsi.^[12]

Mahmud ascended the throne at the age of 27^[13] upon his father's death, albeit after a brief war of succession with his brother Ismail. He was the first ruler to hold the title Sultan ("authority"), signifying the extent of his power while at the same time preserving an ideological link to the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphs. During his rule, he invaded medieval Punjab 17 times and plundered the richest cities and temple towns, such as Mathura and Somnath, and used the booty to build his capital in Ghazni.^[14]^[15]

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Birth and background

Mahmud was born in the town of Ghazni in the region of Zabulistan (in present-day Afghanistan) on 2 November 971. His father, Sabuktigin, was a Turkic slave commander who laid foundations to the Ghaznavid dynasty in Ghazni in 977, which he ruled as a subordinate of the Samanids, who ruled Khorasan and Transoxiana. Mahmud's mother was a local woman of possible Iranian descent from a landowning aristocrat family in the region of Zabulistan,^[16]^[17] and he is therefore known in some sources as Mahmud-i Zavuli ("Mahmud from Zabulistan").^[17] Not much about Mahmud's early life is known, other than that he was a school-mate and foster brother of Ahmad Maymandi, a Persian native of Zabulistan.^[18]

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Creed and Religious Alignment

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Originally Sultan Mahmud was a follower of the Hanafi school of law, but shortly after his accession to the throne he showed inclination towards the Karramite sect and ultimately changed over to the Shafi'i school of law.^[19] Although early in his reign Sultan Mahmud showed sympathies with the Karramiyya sect—evidenced by reports that he “would get angry for the Karramiyya” (yaghḍabu lil-Karramiyya)^[20]^{[failed verification]} Following Mahmud's death Ghaznavid poet Farrukhi said the heretics can now sleep peacefully:

"Alas and alack, the Qarmatiyan can now rejoice! They will be secure against death by stoning or the gallows."^[21]

Afterward, Mahmud came under the influence of the renowned scholar Abū Bakr ʿAbdallāh ibn Aḥmad al-Qaffāl al-Marwazī, Abū Bakr al-Qaffāl al-Marwazī a devout follower of the Ashʿarī theological school and the Shafi'i madhhab.^[22] This shift reflected a broader move within the Ghaznavid court to align with Sunni orthodoxy, distancing itself from anthropomorphic sects like the Karramiyya and from Ismāʿīlī theology. Mahmud's theological stance by the end of his life is thus best described as that of an Ashʿarī in creed and Shafi‘i in jurisprudence.^[2]^[12]

He knew Quran by heart and was familiar with Muslim law and tradition.^[23] According to Ghaznavid author Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi and poet Farrukhi Sistani, the sultan was punctilious in the performance of his religious duties and offered the regular prayers and read the Quran. In the month Ramadan, 2.5% Zakat was collected and spent on the poor.^[19] Mahmud did not tolerate any deviation in Muslim subjects. Censorship was applied and a officer was appointed to punish heresy or delinquency. The followers of the Isma'ili Shia Qaramatians and Batini sects were suppressed in the empire. They were captured imprisoned if they did not recant they were often burnt and executed.^[24]

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb mentioned Mahmud Ghaznavi as a Sultan who suppressed heresy in his kingdom, quote:

“Sultan Mahmud, may God forgive his crimes did not allow half hearted religious men and heretics to enter his court, nay not even his kingdom, so that other people might not be misled by seeing such persons in the form of the dervish, and they themselves might have no power to mislead others.”^[25]

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Family

Mahmud married the daughter of Abu'l Haret Ahmad,^[26] and they had twin sons, Mohammad and Ma'sud, who succeeded him one after the other; his grandson by Mas'ud, Maw'dud Ghaznavi, also later became ruler of the empire. According to Mirat-i-Masudi ("Mirror of Masud"), a Persian-language hagiography written by Abdur Rahman Chishti in the 1620s, Mahmud's sister, Sitr-e-Mu'alla, was purportedly married to Dawood bin Ataullah Alavi, also known as Gazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu, whose son was Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud.^[27] Mahmud's companion was a Georgian slave, Malik Ayaz, about whom poems and stories have been told.^[28]

Issues

He had seven sons and three daughters:

Abu Said Mas'ud
Abu Ahmed Muhammad
Sulaiman
Ismail
Nasr
Ibrahim
Abu Mansur Abdur Rashid.
Unknown daughter married to Ziyarid emir Manuchihr
Zainab, who was married to Yaghantigin, son of Qadir Khan of Kara-Khanid empire
Unknown daughter married to Qabus, ruler of Ziyarid dynasty.^[29]

Early career

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In 988, Mahmud who was only fifteen years of age, took a prominent part in the First Battle of Laghman between his father and Jayapala.

In 994 AD, he joined his father Sabuktigin in the capture of Khorasan from the rebel Fa'iq. Sabuktigin recognised his services and bestowed him the title of Saifu'd-Dawlah (Sword of the State) and appointed him to the command of the troops of Khurasan in place of Abu 'Ali Simjuri.

In April, 995 Abu Ali and Fa'iq attacked him at Nishapur, defeated his army captured his elephants and treasure. In July, Sabuktigin hastened to Mahmud's help. Sabuktigin engaged in battle defeating the allied army. Many officers of Abu Ali was captured and exchanged them for the elephants.

In 996 AD, when Ilak Khan of Kara Khanid Khanate advanced on Bukhara, 'Abdu'llah, the wazir of Amir Nuh offended Subuktigin to cede some portion of his empire. Subuktigin sent Mahmud with 20,000 troops to replace him. During his absence, Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri brother of Abu Ali Simjuri seized Nishapur. Mahmud, with his uncle Bughrajuq, retook it without a fight. He then reconsolidated power in Khurasan. After Subuktigin's death Mahmud returned to Ghazna to contest the throne with his brother Ismail.^[30]

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Reign

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War of Succession

Sabuktigin died in August 997, and was succeeded by his son Ismail as the ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty. The reason behind Sabuktigin's choice to appoint Ismail as heir over the more experienced and older Mahmud is uncertain. It may have been due to Ismail's mother being the daughter of Sabuktigin's old master, Alptigin.^[17] Mahmud shortly revolted, and with the help of his other brother, Abu'l-Muzaffar, the governor of Bust, he defeated Ismail the following year at the battle of Ghazni and gained control over the Ghaznavid kingdom.^[31] That year, in 998, Mahmud then traveled to Balkh and paid homage to Amir Abu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nur II.^[32] He then appointed Abu'l-Hasan Isfaraini as his vizier,^[33] and then set out west from Ghazni to take the Kandahar region followed by Bust (Now Lashkar Gah in southwestern Afghanistan), which he transformed to a militarised city.

Conquest of Khorasan

In 998 AD, Mahmud of Ghazni, having succeeded his father, sought to expand Ghaznavid control into Khorasan. After failing to secure Khorasan through negotiations with Samanid Amir Mansur II, Mahmud invaded Nishapur in 999 AD. On 2 February 999, Mansur was assassinated by Samanid nobleman Begtuzun and Fa’iq, who placed his brother Abd al-Malik II to the throne. Mahmud took up the cause of the assassination of Mansur and advanced against the Samanids. A brief peace agreement was concluded ensuring Mahmud's control of Herat and Balkh. But the conflict resumed when Dara bin Qabus, who did not agree to the treaty attacked Mahmud’s army. Mahmud assembled his army near Merv. Ghaznavid forces, led by Mahmud, his brother Abu'l Muzaffar Nasr supported by cavalry and elephants, defeated the Samanid army of Abd al-Malik, Abu'l Qasim, Begtuzun, Fa'iq. The Samanid dynasty collapsed soon after with Fa’iq’s death and the Kara-Khanid invasion of Bukhara, capturing Abd al-Malik in 999.^[34]

Conquest of Sistan

In 1002 Mahmud invaded Sistan and dethroned Khalaf ibn Ahmad, ending the Saffarid dynasty.^[35] From there he decided to focus on Hindustan to the southeast, particularly the highly fertile lands of the Punjab region.^{[citation needed]}

War with Kara-Khanid Khanate

In 1006 AD, The Kara-Khanid under Ilak Nasr Khan and Qadir Khan invaded Khorasan to annex it from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1006, Ilak Khan’s forces briefly captured Balkh and Herat, but Sultan Mahmud swiftly expelled them by mid-1006. In 1008, Ilak Khan and Qadir Khan led a 50,000-strong army across the Oxus river but were decisively defeated by Mahmud’s forces, supported by elephants, at the Battle of Katar on 5 January 1008. The Kara-Khanids fled, suffering heavy losses, securing Ghaznavid control over Khorasan.^[37]

Conquest of Khwarazm

In 1017 AD, Mahmud resolved to conquer Khwarazm which was under the Ma'munids. Ma'mun I ibn Muhammad annexed Khwarazm after defeating Afrighid Shah Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad in 995 AD. After Ma'mun's assassination in 997 AD, his son Abu al-Hasan Ali ruled until 1009 AD, followed by his brother Abu'l-Abbas Ma'mun. He faced pressure to acknowledge Mahmud’s suzerainty, leading to his submission by reading the khutbah in Mahmud’s name. This sparked a mutiny, culminating in his assassination in March 1017 AD by rebels led by Alptigin, who installed Abul-Abbas’s young son as ruler. Sultan Mahmud, enraged, invaded Khwārazm, defeated the rebels on 3 July 1017, and captured Gurganj, executing Alptigin and other regicides to secure his dominance.^[38]

Mahmud's first campaign to the south was against an Ismaili state first established at Multan in 965 by a da'i from the Fatimid Caliphate in a bid to curry political favor and recognition with the Abbasid Caliphate; he also engaged elsewhere with the Fatimids. At this point, Jayapala attempted to exact revenge for an earlier military defeat at the hands of Mahmud's father, who had controlled Ghazni in the late 980s and had cost Jayapala extensive territory. His son Anandapala succeeded him and continued the struggle to avenge his father's suicide. In the Battle of Chach, he assembled a powerful confederacy that suffered defeat as his elephant turned back from the battle at a crucial moment, turning the tide in Mahmud's favor once more at Lahore in 1008 and bringing Mahmud control of the Shahi dominions of Udbandpura.^[39]

Campaigns in the Indian subcontinent

Following the defeat of the Indian Confederacy, after deciding to retaliate for their combined resistance, Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu vassals and annexing only the Punjab region.^[39] He also vowed to raid and loot the wealthy region of northwestern India every year.^[42]

War against the Hindu Shahi

Mahmud of Ghazni first invaded modern day Pakistan and then parts of India. On 28 November 1001, his army fought and defeated the army of Raja Jayapala of the Kabul Shahis at the Battle of Peshawar. He captured, and later released the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala, who had moved his capital to Peshawar. Jayapala killed himself and was succeeded by his son Anandapala. In 1005 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Bhatia (probably Bhera), and in 1006 he invaded Multan, at which time Anandapala's army attacked him. The following year Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukhapala, ruler of Bathinda (who had become ruler by rebelling against the Shahi kingdom). In 1008–1009, Mahmud defeated the Hindu Shahis in the Battle of Chach. In 1013, during Mahmud's eighth expedition into eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Shahi kingdom (which was then under Trilochanapala, son of Anandapala) was overthrown.^[43]

Invasion of Kashmir

In 1014 Mahmud led an expedition to Thanesar. The next year he unsuccessfully attacked Kashmir. The ruler of Kashmir Sangramaraja had been an ally of the Hindu Shahis against the Ghaznavids, and Mahmud wanted retribution.^[44]^[45] Antagonized by Sangramaraja's having helped Trilochanapala, Mahmud invaded Kashmir. He advanced along the Tohi river valley, planning to enter Kashmir through the Tosamaidan pass. However, his advanced was checked by the strong fort of Loharkot. After having besieged the fort for a month, Mahmud abandoned the siege and retreated, losing many of his troops on his way and almost losing his own life as well. In 1021, Mahmud again attempted to invade Kashmir, but was again not able to advance beyond the Loharkot fort. After the two failed invasion attempts, he did not attempt to invade Kashmir again.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Further campaigns in neighbouring states

In 1018 Mahmud attacked Mathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while also killing a ruler called Chandrapala. The city of Mathura was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed".^[11]^[47] In particular, Al-utbi mentioned in his work Tarikh-e-yamini, that Mahmud Ghaznavi destroyed a "great and magnificent temple" in Mathura.^[48] According to Firishta, writing a "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India, and was consecrated to Vāsudeva-Krishna. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down.^[49] The Art of Mathura fell into decline thereafter.^[50]

In 1021 Mahmud supported the Kannauj king against Chandela Ganda, who was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochanapala was killed at Rahib and his son Bhimapala succeeded him. Lahore (modern Pakistan) was annexed by Mahmud. Mahmud besieged Gwalior, in 1023, where he was given tribute. Mahmud attacked Somnath in 1025, and its ruler Bhima I fled. The next year, he captured Somnath and marched to Kachch against Bhima I. That same year Mahmud also attacked the Jats of Jud and defeated them.^[43] Mahmud's desecration of the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1024 CE motivated Rajput king Bhoja to lead an army against him, however after Somnath raid, Mahmud Ghaznavi chose a more dangerous route via Sindh, to avoid facing the invading powerful armies of Bhoja, he passed through a desert, where the scarcity of food and water killed a large number of his soldiers and animals, Kitabh Zainu'l Akhbar (c. 1048 CE) by 'Abd al-Hayy Gardizi, Tabaqat-i-Akbari by Nizamuddin Ahmad and Firishta's writings also mention this incident.^[51]^[52]

Christoph Baumer notes that in 1026 CE, Jats "inflicted heavy losses" on the army of Mahmud while it was on its way from Somnath to Multan. Later in 1027 CE, he avenged the attack by the Jats, who had been resisting "forced Islamisation" for the past 300 years, by ravaging their fleet in the Indus river. Even though the Jats had a bigger fleet than Mahmud, he is said to have had around 20 archers on each of his 1400 boats, stocked with "special projectiles" carrying naphtha, which he used to burn the Jats' fleet.^[53]

The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Kannauj, and Gwalior were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to neglect making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the northwestern subcontinent, he engaged in a policy of destroying Hindu temples and monuments to crush any move by the Hindus to attack the empire; Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, Kannauj, Kalinjar (1023)^[54] and Somnath all submitted or were raided. It is estimated^{[by whom?]} Mahmud's invasions killed over 2 million people.^[55]

Persian campaigns and adjoining lands

In 1012, Mahmud secured dominance over Ziyarids in Northern Persia.^[56] In 1029 AD, Daylamite troops threatened the weak ruler Majd al-Dawla, who sought help from Sultan Mahmud. Mahmud taking the opportunity sent 8,000 cavalry to capture Majd al-Dawla, while he marched to Jurjan to prevent Seljuk interference. In May, Ghaznavids captured Ray and put Majd Al Dawla under surveillance. On 26 May 1029, Mahmud entered Ray without resistance, seizing significant wealth. Majd al-Dawla was imprisoned and sent to India. Mahmud ordered Mas'ud to lead campaign against the remaining of Buyid territories. Mas'ud went against the Kakuyids of Hamadan and Isfahan. He first captured Hamadan and then advanced to Isfahan, which was seized in January 1030.^[57] Ghaznavids then subjugated the neighbouring kingdoms in Azerbaijan, and Northern Iran with Rawadids and Sallarids paying tribute.^[58]^[59]

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Events and challenges

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In 1025 Mahmud raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath temple and breaking its jyotirlinga. He took away booty of 2 million dinars. The conquest of Somnath was followed by a punitive invasion of Anhilwara.^[60]^[61]^[62] Some historians claim that there are records of pilgrimages to the temple in 1038 that do not mention damage to the temple.^[63] However, powerful legends with intricate detail had developed regarding Mahmud's raid in the Turko-Persian literature,^[64] which "electrified" the Muslim world according to scholar Meenakshi Jain.^[65]

Historiography concerning Somnath

Historians including Thapar, Eaton, and A. K. Majumdar have questioned the iconoclastic historiography of this incident. Thapar quoted Majumdar (1956):

But, as is well known, Hindu sources do not give any information regarding the raids of Sultan Mahmud, so that what follows is based solely on the testimony of Muslim authors.^[66]

Thapar also argued against the prevalent narrative:

Yet in a curiously contradictory manner, the Turko-Persian narratives were accepted as historically valid and even their internal contradictions were not given much attention, largely because they approximated more closely to the current European sense of history than did the other sources.^[67]

Political challenges

This section does not cite any sources. (July 2025)

The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of Oghuz and Seljuk Turks from Central Asia and the Buyid dynasty. Initially, after being repulsed by Mahmud, the Seljuks retired to Khwarezm, but Togrül and Çagrı led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1028–1029). Later, they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successors across Khorasan and Balkh and even sacked Ghazni in 1037. In 1040, at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mahmud's son, Mas'ud I, resulting in Mas'ud abandoning most of his western territories to the Seljuks.

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Last days

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Tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni

Exterior of the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni, painted by James Atkinson c. 1840

A painting of the inside of the mausoleum of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, in 1839–40.

The tomb is located in the village of Rawza (Rawdza), 4 kilometers northeast of Ghazni (33.581870°N 68.453852°E).^[68]^[69] The gate of the tomb was removed by the East India Company in 1842, wrongly claiming that it belonged to the Somnath Temple, and is now located in the Agra fort.^[70]

Sultan Mahmud had contracted malaria during his expedition against Jats in 1027 AD which was his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. For two years he suffered from this disease. In spite of the warnings of his physicians he carried his daily routine and engaged in court activities.^[71]

He chased the Seljuks out of Khorasan and carried out campaign in Rey. He spent the summer of 1029 in Khorasan following winter in Balkh. The climate of Balkh was unsuitable for him therefore he returned back to Ghazni about 22 April 1030 AD.^[71]

On Thursday, 30 April, after resting a week in the capital Ghazni, Mahmud died at 5 o'clock, at the age of 58 years. He was buried at the same evening at the time of Isha prayer in the Firuzi garden his favourite pleasure resort.^[72] His mausoleum is located in Ghazni, Afghanistan.^[73]

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Campaign timeline

As emir

987: War with Hindu Shahis under Sabuktigin at First Battle of Laghman
994: Gains the title of Saif ad-Dawla and becomes Governor of Khorasan under service to Nuh II of the Samanid Empire in civil strife
995: The Samanid rebels Fa'iq (leader of a court faction that had defeated Alptigin's nomination for Emir) and Abu Ali Simjuri expel Mahmud from Nishapur. Mahmud and Sabuktigin defeat Samanid rebels at Tus.
996: Leading and army of 20,000 deposed Amir Nuh's wazir Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Uzair
998: Defeated and dethroned Ismail in Battle of Ghazni (998)

As sultan

999: Khorasan, Balkh, Herat, Merv from the Samanids. Mahmud recognised as the overlord of Gharchistan.
1000: Capture of forts in Lamghan.
1001: Gandhara annexed by Sultan Mahmud after defeating Raja Jayapala in the Battle of Peshawar; Jayapala subsequently abdicates and commits suicide.
1002: Sistan captured from Saffarid dynasty.
1003: Suppression of Rebels in Sistan.
1004: Bhatia (Bhera) is annexed after it fails to pay its yearly tribute.
1005-6: Fateh Daud, the Ismaili ruler of Multan^[74] revolts and enlists the aid of Anandapala. Mahmud massacres the Ismailis^[75]^[76] of Multan in the course of his conquest. Anandapala is defeated at Peshawar and pursued to Sodra (Wazirabad). Defends Balkh and Khorasan against Nasr I of the Kara-Khanid Khanate and recaptures Nishapur from Isma'il Muntasir of the late Samanids.

1007: Sukhapala rebels and is defeated.
1008: Mahmud defeated the Hindu Shahis in the Battle of Chach near Hazro in Chach,^[78] and captures the Shahi treasury at Kangra, Himachal Pradesh.
1009: Conquest of Nagarkot. Mahmud left for Narayanpur.^[79]
1010: Multan revolts. Abul Fatah Dawood is imprisoned for life at Ghazni.
1011: Invasion of Ghor. Amir Suri Ghor imprisoned. Rebellion of the ruler of Qusdar but defeated and Submission of its ruler.^[80]
1012-1013: Incorporation of Gharchistan. Sacks Thanesar^[78]
1012: Invades Gharchistan and deposes its ruler Abu Nasr Muhammad.
1012: Demands and receives remainder of the province of Khorasan from the Abbasid Caliph. Then demands Samarkand as well but is rebuffed.
1013: Bulnat: Defeats Trilochanpala.
1014: Kafiristan is attacked. Fall of Thanesar.
1015: Mahmud's army sacks Lahore, but his expedition to Kashmir fails, due to inclement weather.^[81]
1015-16: Khwarezm: Marries his sister to Abul Abbas Mamun of Khwarezm, who dies in the same year in a rebellion. Moves to quell the rebellion and installs a new ruler and annexes a portion. Mahmud advanced against Balkh.^[82]
1017: Kannauj, Meerut, and Muhavun on the Yamuna, Mathura and various other regions along the route. While moving through Kashmir he levies troops from vassal Prince for his onward march; Kannauj and Meerut submit without battle. Khwarazm conquered placed under Altuntash.
1018-1020: Sacks the town of Mathura.^[78]
1021: Kalinjar attacks Kannauj: he marches to their aid and finds the last Shahi King, Trilochanpaala, encamped as well. No battle, the opponents leave their baggage trains and withdraw from the field. Also fails to take the fort of Lokote again. Takes Lahore on his return. Trilochanpala flees to Ajmer. First Muslim governors appointed east of the Indus River.
1023: Lahore. He forces Kalinjar and Gwalior to submit and pay tribute.^[83] Trilochanpala, the grandson of Jayapala, is assassinated by his own troops. Official annexation of Punjab by Ghazni. Also fails to take the Lohara fort on the western border of Kashmir for the second time.
1024: Ajmer, Nehrwala, Kathiawar: This raid is his last major campaign. The concentration of wealth at Somnath was renowned, and consequently it became an attractive target for Mahmud, as it had previously deterred most invaders. The temple and citadel are sacked, and most of its defenders massacred.
1025: Somnath: Mahmud sacks the temple and is reported to have personally hammered the temple's gilded Lingam to pieces, and the stone fragments are carted back to Ghazni, where they are incorporated into the steps of the city's new Jama Masjid (Friday Mosque) in 1026. He places a new king on the throne in Gujarat as a tributary. His return detours across the Thar Desert to avoid the armies of Ajmer and other allies on his return.
1025: Marches against the Jats of the Jood Mountains, who harry his army on its return from the sack of Somnath.
1027: Devastates the fleet of Jats in Indus River to avenge the "heavy losses" suffered by his army in an onslaught by Jats in 1026 CE.^[53]
1029-30: Annexed Rey, Isfahan, Hamadan, Jibal from the Buyids, submission of Rawadids and Sallarids

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Administration

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Sultan Mahmud had five important ministers who were in charge of different offices:^[84]

Dīwān-i-Wizārat or Finance Department
Dīwān-i-‘Ard or War Department
Dīwān-i-Risālat or Correspondence Department
Dīwān-i-Shughl-i-Ishrāf-i-Mamlukat or Secret Service Department
Dīwān-i-Wikālat or Household Department .

He paid great attention to details in almost everything, personally overseeing the work of every department of his divan (administration).^[85]

The Wazir or Grand Vizier

Mahmud appointed all his ministers himself without advising his diwan, though occasionally he had to, as his religion dictated that Muslims should consult each other on all issues.^[86] Most of the time he was suspicious of his ministers, particularly of the wazir, and the following words are widely believed to be his: "wazirs are the enemies of kings..."^[86]

Mahmud had three Wazirs. In 995 AD, former Samanid nobleman Abu'l-'Abbas Fadl b. Ahmad, became the first Wazir of Mahmud. In 1013 AD, he was charged with extortion and imprisoned. He died the same year. He was succeeded by Mahmud Ghaznavi's foster brother Shamsu'l Kufat Abu'l Qasim Ahmad bin Hasan al Maimandi in 1014 AD. In 1025 AD he was dismissed and sent to fort of Kalanjar. After the Sultan's death he was reappointed by Mas'ud I. Ahmad was succeeded by Abū ‘Alī Hasan bin Muhammad bin ‘Abbās. In 1023 AD he went to Hajj. The Fatimid ruler Al Zahir honoured him with a Khil’at (robe of honour) which offended Abbasid Caliph Al-Qadir. Sultan Mahmud sent the Khi’lat to Baghdad to be burnt. During the time of his service he often insulted Masud. After Masud became Sultan he was charged of being a Qaramatian and put to death in 1031 AD. ^[87]

Military Department

The head of the Dīwān-i-‘Ard or the military department was known as Ārid or Şahib-i-Dīwān-i-'Ard.^[88] The Arid's duty is to maintain the welfare of soldiers and efficiency as well as to maintain the collection of war booty. Every year he reviewed the entire Ghaznavid army which marched before him in the plains of Shabahar, Ghazni. The assistant of Ārid's was called Naib-i-‘Ard. The Ārid kept the records of fallen soldiers from illness, retirement and war. During war times the Arid was the Quarter Master General of the army.^[89]

The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, elite body guards and elephants. The core of the army was slave soldiers.^[90] The bodyguards of the Sultan consisted chiefly of slaves under direct order of Sultan. Their banner had the distinctive device of a lion and spears. Mahmud's army employed Hindus as elephant drivers and their commander was called Muqaddam-i-Pil-bānān. The elephants, too, were under the direct control of the Sultan.^[91] During Mas'ud's reign the commander of the army in India was shifted to a Hindu ghulam (slave) named Tilak.^[92]

Numerical Strength of the Army

In 999 AD, when Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Samanid under Abdu'l-Malik ibn Nūh at Marv, commanding at least 32,000 horses. In 1015-16 AD, he invaded Balkh. A Ghaznavid era Historian Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi estimated the sultan's army numbered 100,000 soldiers.^[93]

In 1023 AD, army was reviewed at the plains of Shabahar numbering 54,000 cavalry and 1300 elephants, besides the garrisons in the outposts of the empire to guard the long frontier. 12th century historian Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi puts the strength of his army roughly at 100,000, including both the cavalry and infantry. In Makran expedition to place Abu'l Mu'askar to the throne Sultan Mahmud dispatched an army of 4000 cavalry and 3000 infantry. In 1039 an army of 8,000 cavalrymen was composed during the conquest of Rey.^[94]

The total number of the slaves was about 4000 and 1700 elephants.^[95] Each of the elephants used to cost 100,000 dirhams.^[96]

Administration of the Army

The sultan was the chief commander of the army. The next highest office under him was the commander of Khurasan which was held by his brother Nasr and Yusuf successively.^[97] The army was mainly recruited from Transoxiana but Arabs, Afghans, Daylamites, Khurasanis, Ghuris and Indians were also recruited.^[95]

Each province had a commander of the local troops, who was usually a Turkomān. Every provincial army had its own Arid who had an assistant called Nā'ib-i-'Ard and a Kat-khuda, i.e. Quarter-master. There was a Şahib-Barid, or Master of the Post, attached to every army.^[97]

Hierarchy of the Army

The hierarchy of the army follows:

The Khail-tāsh, commander of 10 horses.
The Qa'id, who commanded a khail, approximately one hundred horses.
The Sarhang, who was the commander of five hundred horses.
Hajib, who was the officer commanding the army
Sipah-Sālār, controlled all the troops in a province.

Every army had a separate magazine and armoury, and arms were distributed among the soldiery shortly before the battle.^[98]

Department of Correspondence

The Diwan-i-Risalat or Correspondence Department, works like "the repository of secrets". Şahib-i-Diwān-i-Risalat, was the head of the Correspondence Department. The chief officer's tasks were to write Sultan's letters to the Caliph, foreign princes, local governors and foreign empires. The office hours were from 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning to 3 pm in the afternoon. Tuesday and Friday were observed as holidays.^[99]

Department of Secret Intelligence

The Department of Secret Intelligence was called Dīwān-i-Shughl-i-Ishrāf-i-Mamlukat. Sultan Mahmud had numerous spies (called mushrifs) across his empire, supervised by the special department within his diwan. Persons of both male and female served as spies and travelled to foreign lands in disguise to collect useful information for the Sultan. A team of spies (Mushrifān-i-Dargah) kept eyes on the activities of the ministers, princes and courtiers. When the Sultan sent verbal order to an officer, he used to send two men, one of them being a mushrif on the other, to guarantee that the message and its reply were correctly delivered.^[100]

News and Postal System

To transfer news and reports of spies, there was a regular official postal service throughout the empire. The Şāhib-Barīd or Master of the Post at the headquarters of every province was the official news writer whose duty was to inform every important detail to the sultan.^[101]

Comptroller of the Households

The Şahib-i-Diwān-i-Wikālat, or the Comptroller of the Household's duty was to manage the Royal Kitchen, the Royal Stables and the numerous staff attached to the Sultan's palace. The Wakil was also in charge of the private treasury of the Sultan, and distributed rations and salaries to his personal staff and his bodyguards.^[102]

Justice System

The justice system employed Qadis just like every other Muslim empires. Qadis are expert on the knowledge of Muslim Law. Every province had a Qadi'l-Qudāt or Chief Qadi. The Qadis is said to have power over the “life and properties of Muslims”. They themselves were the judge and the law. The parties and evidences were carefully considered and judgement was given. If a Qadi misconduct his duties the Sultan himself investigated the issue and dismissed the offender.^[102]

Provincial Government

There were three important branches of administration in a Ghaznavid province: civil, military, and judicial. The highest military officer in the province was the commander of the provincial army.^[103]

Administration of Towns

Every town was protected by a fort, and the commander of the fort, called Kotwāl who was also the chief military officer in the locality. The chief civil officer in a town was the Muhtasib or Shihna who kept peace and order, monitored unadulterated food supply, legal standard of measurement, free trade. Also the Muslim Law regarding public morality was supervised by him. Criminals were sent to the Amir-i-Haras or the Chief Jailor, for safe custody till they were brought for trial before the Qadis. Religious and educational endowments in each town were administered by a separate office called Ishraf-i-Awqaf.^[104]

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Legacy

Summarize

Perspective

By the end of his reign, the Ghaznavid Empire extended from Ray in the west to Samarkand in the north-east, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although his raids carried his forces across the Indian subcontinent, only a portion of the Punjab and of Sindh in modern-day Pakistan came under his semi-permanent rule; Kashmir, the Doab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Hindu dynasties.

The booty brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g. Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni, the first centre of Persian literature,^[109] into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. Mahmud brought whole libraries from Ray and Isfahan to Ghazni. He even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.^[110]

Mahmud patronized the notable poet Ferdowsi, who after laboring 27 years, went to Ghazni and presented the Shahnameh to him. There are various stories in medieval texts describing the lack of interest shown by Mahmud to Ferdowsi and his life's work. According to historians, Mahmud had promised Ferdowsi a dinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (which would have been 60,000 dinars), but later retracted his promise and presented him with dirhams (20,000 dirhams), at that time the equivalent of only 200 dinars. His expedition across the Gangetic plains in 1017 inspired Al-Biruni to compose his Tarikh Al-Hind in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs. During Mahmud's rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine.

The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years. The expanding Seljuk empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The Ghorids captured Ghazni in 1150, and Mu'izz al-Din (also known as Muhammad of Ghori) captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187.

Despite Mahmud's remarkable abilities as a military commander, he failed to consolidate his empire's conquests with subtle authority. Mahmud also lacked the genius for administration and could not build long term enduring institutions in his state during his reign.^[111]^[112]

In honor of Mahmud of Ghazni, the Pakistan Armed Forces named a short-range ballistic missile the Ghaznavi.^[113]

In 2021, Taliban leader Anas Haqqani tweeted praising Mahmud of Ghazni labeling him as a "renowned Muslim warrior & Mujahid of the 10th century" who "established a strong Muslim rule in the region from Ghazni & smashed the idol of Somnath".^[114]

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Personality and views

Summarize

Perspective

Sultan Mahmud thought of himself as "the Shadow of God on Earth".^[115]

Mahmud was a man of medium height, and of a powerful and symmetrical build. He had a fine complexion, handsome face, small eyes and a firm, round chin which was covered with a scanty beard.^[116]

Mahmud was a patron of literature, especially Persian poetry, and he was occasionally found in the company of talented poets either in his palace or in the royal garden. He was often generous to them, paying unstintingly for their works according to their talent and worth.^[86] According to Dawlatshah, Mahmud had 400 poets in his court.^[21] The Sultan himself was a poet and scholar. It is said he was the author of Fiqh work named Tafridu’l Furu.^[117]

Following Mahmud's recognition by the Abbasid caliphate in 999, he pledged a jihad and a raid on India every year.^[118] In 1005 Mahmud conducted a series of campaigns during which the Ismailis of Multan were massacred.^[119]

Following his quest for Jihad in India, Mahmud not only ruined the Somnath temple and plundered its treasures but also killed every devotee present in the town. He did the same with women devotees, either killing them or enslaved them to be later sold in the slave markets of Afghanistan.^[120]

Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. Indian soldiers, who historian Romila Thapar presumed to be Hindus, were one of the components of the army with their commander called sipahsalar-i-Hinduwan and lived in their own quarter of Ghazna practicing their own religion and ceremonies.^[121] Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according to Baihaki.^[122]

Indian historian Mohammad Habib states that there was no imposition of Jizya on "non-Muslims" during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni nor any mention of "forced conversions":

[H]is (Mahmud's) expeditions against India were not motivated by religion but by love of plunder.^[123]

According to A. V. Williams Jackson, "Mahmud vowed that every year he would wage a Holy War against the infidels of Hindustan".^[124] During the seventh year of his reign, Mahmud mintage from Lahore styled him as "Mahmud but-shikan" (Mahmud the idol breaker).^[125]

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Birth and background

Creed and Religious Alignment

Family

Issues

Early career

Reign

War of Succession

Conquest of Khorasan

Conquest of Sistan

War with Kara-Khanid Khanate

Conquest of Khwarazm

Campaigns in the Indian subcontinent

War against the Hindu Shahi

Invasion of Kashmir

Further campaigns in neighbouring states

Persian campaigns and adjoining lands

Events and challenges

Historiography concerning Somnath

Political challenges

Last days

Campaign timeline

As emir

As sultan

Administration

The Wazir or Grand Vizier

Military Department

Numerical Strength of the Army

Administration of the Army

Hierarchy of the Army

Department of Correspondence

Department of Secret Intelligence

News and Postal System

Comptroller of the Households

Justice System

Provincial Government

Administration of Towns

Legacy

Personality and views

See also

Further reading

References

Sources

External links