Hokan languages

"Hokan" redirects here. For hōkan male geisha of Japan, see Taikomochi.

The Hokan /ˈhoʊkæn/ language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families spoken mainly in California, Arizona, and Baja California.

Hokan
(controversial)
Geographic distribution	North America
Linguistic classification	Proposed language family
Subdivisions	Karuk Shasta-Palaihnihan † Ch’imáriko † Yana † Washo Esselen † Salinan † Pomoan Yuman Seri Coahuiltecan † Tequistlatecan Jicaquean (Tolan)
Language codes
ISO 639-5	hok
Glottolog	None
Hokan families of California, Arizona and Baja California

Etymology

The name Hokan is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan languages: *xwak in Proto-Yuman, c-oocj (pronounced [koːkx]) in Seri, ha'k in Achumawi, etc. Compare similar construction of the term "Penutian".

History of the proposal

The "Hokan hypothesis" was first proposed in 1913 by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber,^[1][2] and further elaborated by Edward Sapir. Initial follow-up research found little additional evidence that these language families were related to each other. But since about 1950, increased efforts to document Hokan languages and to establish sound correspondences in proposed lexical resemblance sets have added weight to the Hokan hypothesis, leading to its acceptance by many specialists in the languages of California, Oregon, and Mesoamerica. However, some skepticism remains among scholars.^[3]

Linguist Paul Rivet claimed the Yurumanguí language of Colombia was part of the Hokan family.^[4] This claim has not been accepted by historical linguists. Terrence Kaufman wondered if Hokan might be related to Oto-Mangean of Central America.^[5]

An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013)^[6] found lexical similarities among Seri, Yuman and Tequistlatecan. However, since the analysis was automatically generated, the grouping could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.

Distribution

The geographic distribution of the Hokan languages suggests that they became separated around the Central Valley of California by the influx of later-arriving Penutian and other peoples; archaeological evidence for this is summarized in Chase-Dunn & Mann (1998). These languages are spoken by Native American communities around and east of Mount Shasta, others near Lake Tahoe, the Pomo on the California coast, and the Yuman peoples along the lower Colorado River. Some linguists also include Chumash, between San Luis Obispo and Los Angeles, and other families, but the evidence is insubstantial, and most now restrict Hokan to some or all of the languages listed below.

Linguists have suggested that Coahuilteco and Comecrudan spoken in southern Texas and northern Mexico belong to the Hokan language family. These languages are extinct and confirmation of the relationship is lacking.^[7]

Languages

The Hokan languages retained by Kaufman (1988) due to regular sound correspondences and common core vocabulary are as follows. (The data on which these conclusions were drawn have not been published or evaluated by anyone else.) Apart from Shasta–Palaihnihan and Yuman, all branches are single languages or shallow families.^[8]

• Hokan
  • Chimariko
  • Yana/Yahi
  • Karuk
  • Shasta–Palaihnihan
    • Shastan (4)
    • Palaihnihan (2)
  • Pomoan (7)
  • Washo
  • Esselen
  • Salinan
  • Yuman (12)
  • Seri
  • Coahuilteco
  • Comecrudan (3)
  • Tequistlatecan (3)
  • Jicaquean (Tolan, 2)

Marlett (2008) reevaluated the evidence and concluded that the evidence for Seri and Salinan has not been systematically or convincingly presented. The inclusion of the Tequistlatecan languages has also not received much support.^{[citation needed]} The Chumash languages were once included, but that position has been almost universally abandoned.

Zhivlov (2013)

A lexicostatistical classification of the Hokan languages by Zhivlov (2013) is roughly presented as follows.^[9]

• Hokan
  • Northern
    • • Chimariko
      • • Karuk
        • • Shasta
          • • Achumawi
            • Atsugewi
  • Southern
    • • Yana
      • • Seri
        • • Highland Chontal
          • Yuman
    • • Salinan
      • Pomoan

Zhivlov (2013) does not consider Jicaquean (Tol) and Washo to be Hokan languages.

Vocabulary

Some Hokan lexical correspondences from Mary R. Haas (1963) are provided below.^[10]

GLOSS	PROTO- SHASTA	PROTO- PALAIHNIHAN	PROTO- POMO	Yana	Karok	Chimariko	PROTO- YUMA	PROTO- HOKAN
'ear'	*ísamakʼ	*ísamaK	*išamál	malʔgu		-sam	*išamárika *išamákari	*išamarukʼa *išamákʼaru
'liver'	*č-ímapasi	*iwapasi		ima	váfiš	-ši	*imačipasí	*č-imapasi *imačipasi
'navel'	*ímaraw	alu (Achomawi)		lakʼi	ʔárup	-napu	*imalikwí *imakwáli	*imarakʼwi *imakʼwari
'neck (nape)'	*ímapka	*iwapaKi			vúˑp	-kki	*amipúki	*imapaki *amipaki
'nose'	*č-imari	*yaw̃ari *iw̃ari	*ilaw̃a					*yamari *imari *irama
'tongue'	ipwá (Okwanuchu)	*ipali __	*ipál __	bawal-	ápri-	-pen	*ipáli	*ipari *ipawari *ipariwa

Similar forms for 'tongue' include:

• Chumash elʔew, elew < *ipariwa
• Washo alŋ < *ipariwa
• Salinan épal, ipaL < *ipari
• Seri apɬ < *ipari
• Chontal pala, peɬ- < *ipari

Similarities with Uto-Aztecan

Shaul (2019) notes the following similarities between Proto-Hokan (based on Kaufman 2015^[11]) and Proto-Uto-Aztecan.^[12]

Gloss (for Proto-Hokan)	Proto-Hokan	Proto-Uto-Aztecan
louse/flea	#ači	*atë(N) ‘louse/nit’
paternal grandfather	#apu	*apu ‘father/parent/mother’
objective case	#-i	*i ‘objective case’
come	#iyu, #iya	*ya- ‘come’
wife	#luwa, #lowa	*lowa ‘vagina’
hand	#man, #ma	*man ~ *ma ‘hand’
give	#ma ~ #mo	*maka ‘give’
woman	#mari	maːla ‘mother’ (Yoemian)
know (through magic)	#mata ~ #matu ~ #mati	*mata ~ *mati ‘know’
be a woman	#momo-	momo- ‘woman’ (Hopi)
(not quite) dead	#mu-	*mukːV ‘die (singular)’
young woman	#mus-	*muts [~ *mos] ‘vagina’
child	#ŋam	-ŋyam ‘clan’ (Hopi)
pitch/sap	#sala	*saLa ‘pitch’

See also

• Chumashan languages
• Penutian languages