Icelandic orthography

Icelandic orthography uses a Latin-script alphabet which has 32 letters. Compared with the 26 letters of the English alphabet, the Icelandic alphabet lacks C, Q, W, and Z, but additionally has Ð, Þ, Æ, and Ö. Six letters have forms with acute accents to produce Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú and Ý.

Eth (Ð ð) Thorn (Þ þ)

A handwriting extract; the Icelandic letters ⟨ð⟩ and ⟨þ⟩ are visible.

The letters eth (⟨ð⟩, capital ⟨Ð⟩), transliterated as ⟨d⟩, and thorn (⟨þ⟩, capital ⟨Þ⟩), transliterated as ⟨th⟩, are widely used in the Icelandic language. Eth is also used in Faroese and Elfdalian, while thorn was used in many historical languages such as Old English. The letters ⟨æ⟩ (capital ⟨Æ⟩) and ⟨ö⟩ (capital ⟨Ö⟩) are considered completely separate letters in Icelandic and are collated as such, even though they originated as a ligature and a diacritical version respectively.

Icelandic words never start with ⟨ð⟩, which means its capital ⟨Ð⟩ occurs only when words are spelled in all capitals. The alphabet is as follows:

Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
A	Á	B	D	Ð	E	É	F	G	H	I	Í	J	K	L	M	N	O	Ó	P	R	S	T	U	Ú	V	X	Y	Ý	Z	Þ	Æ	Ö
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
a	á	b	d	ð	e	é	f	g	h	i	í	j	k	l	m	n	o	ó	p	r	s	t	u	ú	v	x	y	ý	z	þ	æ	ö

The above table has 33 letters, including the letter Z which is obsolete but may be found in older texts, e.g. verzlun became verslun.

Names of letters

Letter	Name	IPA	Frequency[1]
Aa	a	[aː]	10.11%
Áá	á	[auː]	1.8%
Bb	bé	[pjɛː]	1.04%
Dd	dé	[tjɛː]	1.58%
Ðð	eð	[ɛːθ]	4.39%
Ee	e	[ɛː]	6.42%
Éé	é	[jɛː]	0.65%
Ff	eff	[ɛfː]	3.01%
Gg	ge	[cɛː]	4.24%
Hh	há	[hauː]	1.87%
Ii	i	[ɪː]	7.58%
Íí	í	[iː]	1.57%
Jj	joð	[jɔːθ]	1.14%
Kk	ká	[kʰauː]	3.31%
Ll	ell	[ɛtːl̥]	4.53%
Mm	emm	[ɛmː]	4.04%
Nn	enn	[ɛnː]	7.71%
Oo	o	[ɔː]	2.17%
Óó	ó	[ouː]	0.99%
Pp	pé	[pʰjɛː]	0.79%
Rr	err	[ɛr̥ː]	8.58%
Ss	ess	[ɛsː]	5.63%
Tt	té	[tʰjɛː]	4.95%
Uu	u	[ʏː]	4.56%
Úú	ú	[uː]	0.61%
Vv	vaff	[vafː]	2.44%
Xx	ex	[ɛks]	0.05%
Yy	ufsilon y	[ˈʏfsɪlɔn ɪː]	0.9%
Ýý	ufsilon ý	[ˈʏfsɪlɔn iː]	0.23%
Zz	seta	[ˈsɛːta]	~0%
Þþ	þorn	[θɔrtn̥]	1.45%
Ææ	æ	[aiː]	0.87%
Öö	ö	[œː]	0.78%

The names of the letters are grammatically neuter (except the now obsolete ⟨z⟩ which is grammatically feminine).

The letters ⟨a⟩, ⟨á⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨í⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ó⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ú⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨ý⟩, ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are considered vowels, and the remainder are consonants.

⟨c⟩ (sé, [sjɛː]), ⟨q⟩ (kú, [kʰuː]) and ⟨w⟩ (tvöfalt vaff, [ˈtʰvœːfal̥t ˌvafː]) are only used in Icelandic in words of foreign origin and some proper names that are also of foreign origin. Otherwise, ⟨c⟩, ⟨qu⟩, and ⟨w⟩ are replaced by ⟨k/s/ts⟩, ⟨hv⟩, and ⟨v⟩ respectively. (In fact, ⟨hv⟩ etymologically corresponds to Latin ⟨qu⟩ and English ⟨wh⟩ in words inherited from Proto-Indo-European: Icelandic hvað, Latin quod, English what.)

⟨z⟩ (seta, [ˈsɛːta]) was used until 1973, when it was abolished, as it was only an etymological detail. It originally represented an affricate [t͡s], which arose from the combinations ⟨t⟩+⟨s⟩, ⟨d⟩+⟨s⟩, ⟨ð⟩+⟨s⟩; however, in modern Icelandic, it came to be pronounced [s], and since it was a letter that was not commonly used, it was decided in 1973 to replace all instances of ⟨z⟩ with ⟨s⟩.^[2] However, one of the most important newspapers in Iceland, Morgunblaðið, still uses it sometimes (although very rarely), a hot-dog chain, Bæjarins Beztu Pylsur, and a secondary school, Verzlunarskóli Íslands have it in their names. It is also found in some proper names (e.g. Zakarías, Haralz, Zoëga), and loanwords such as pizza (also written pítsa). Older people who were educated before the abolition of the ⟨z⟩ sometimes also use it.

While ⟨c⟩, ⟨q⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨z⟩ are found on the Icelandic keyboard, they are rarely used in Icelandic; they are used in some proper names of Icelanders, mainly family names (family names are the exception in Iceland). ⟨c⟩ is used on road signs (to indicate city centre) according to European regulation, and cm is used for the centimetre according to the international SI system (while it may be written out as sentimetri). Many^[who?] believe these letters should be included in the alphabet, as its purpose is a tool to collate (sort into the correct order), and practically that is done, i.e. computers treat the alphabet as a superset of the English alphabet. The alphabet as taught in schools up to about 1980^{[citation needed]} has these 36 letters (and computers still order this way): a, á, b, c, d, ð, e, é, f, g, h, i, í, j, k, l, m, n, o, ó, p, q, r, s, t, u, ú, v, w, x, y, ý, z, þ, æ, ö.

History

The modern Icelandic alphabet developed from a standard established in the 19th century (primarily by Danish linguist Rasmus Rask). It is ultimately based heavily on an orthographic standard created in the early 12th century by a document referred to as The First Grammatical Treatise, author unknown. The standard was intended for the common North Germanic language Old Norse. It did not have much influence, however, at the time.

The most defining characteristics of the alphabet were established in the old treatise:

• Use of the acute accent (originally to signify vowel length).
• Use of ⟨þ⟩, also used in the Old English alphabet as the letter thorn.

The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-enactment of the old treatise, with some changes to fit concurrent North Germanic conventions, such as the exclusive use of ⟨k⟩ rather than ⟨c⟩. Various old features, like ⟨ð⟩, had not seen much use in the later centuries, so Rask's standard constituted a major change in practice.

Later 20th-century changes are most notably the adoption of ⟨é⟩, which had previously been written as ⟨je⟩ (reflecting the modern pronunciation), and the replacement of ⟨z⟩ with ⟨s⟩ in 1973.^[3]

Spelling-to-sound correspondence

This section lists Icelandic letters and letter combinations and their phonemic representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet.^[4][5]

Vowels

Icelandic vowels may be either long or short, but this distinction is only relevant in stressed syllables: unstressed vowels are neutral in quantitative aspect. The vowel length is determined by the consonants that follow the vowel: if there is only one consonant before another vowel or at the end of a word (i.e., CVCV or CVC# syllable structure), the vowel is long; if there are more than one (CVCCV), counting geminates and pre-aspirated stops as CC, the vowel is short. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule:

1. A vowel is long when the first consonant following it is [p t k s] and the second [v j r], e.g. esja, vepja, akrar, vökvar, tvisvar.
2. A vowel is also long in monosyllabic substantives with a genitive -s whose stem ends in a single [p t k] following a vowel (e.g. ráps, skaks), except if the final [p t k] is assimilated into the [s], e.g. báts.
3. The first word of a compound term preserves its long vowel if its following consonant is one of the group [p t k s], e.g. matmál.
4. The non-compound verbs vitkast and litka have long vowels.

Vowels

Grapheme	Sound (IPA)				Examples
	Long	Short	Before ⟨gi⟩ [jɪ][6]	Before ⟨ng⟩ or ⟨nk⟩
a	[aː]	[a]	[ai]	[au]	taska [ˈtʰaska] ⓘ "handbag" taka [ˈtʰaːka] ⓘ "to take" svangur [ˈsvauŋkʏr̥] "hungry"
á	[auː]	[au]			lás [lauːs] ⓘ "lock"
au	[œyː]	[œy]			þau [θœyː] ⓘ "they"
e	[ɛː]	[ɛ]	[ei]		dreka [ˈtrɛːka] "(a) dragon" drekka [ˈtrɛʰka] ⓘ "to drink" drengur [ˈtreiŋkʏr̥] "boy"
é	[jɛː]	[jɛ]			ég [jɛːx] ⓘ "I"
ei, ey	[eiː]	[ei]			skeið [sceiːθ] ⓘ "spoon" hey [heiː] "hay"
i, y	[ɪː]	[ɪ]	[i]		sin [sɪːn] ⓘ "sinew" syngja [ˈsiɲca] "to sing"
í, ý	[iː]	[i]			íslenska [ˈistlɛnska] ⓘ "Icelandic"
o	[ɔː]	[ɔ]	[ɔi]	[ou]	lofa [ˈlɔːva] ⓘ "to promise" logn [ˈlɔkn̥] ⓘ "windstill"
ó	[ouː]	[ou]			rós [rouːs] ⓘ "rose" dóttir [ˈtouʰtɪr̥] ⓘ "daughter"
u	[ʏː]	[ʏ]	[ʏi]	[u]	hundur [ˈhʏntʏr̥] ⓘ "dog" munkur [ˈmuŋ̊kʏr̥] "monk"
ú	[uː]	[u]			þú [θuː] ⓘ "you"
æ	[aiː]	[ai]			læsa [ˈlaiːsa] ⓘ "to lock" hæll [ˈhaitl̥] ⓘ "heel"
ö	[œː]	[œ]	[œy]		ör [œːr] ⓘ "scar" Hörður [ˈhœrðʏr̥] ⓘ given name öngull [ˈœyŋkʏtl̥] "hook"

Consonants

Consonants

Grapheme	Phonetic realization (IPA)	Examples
b	between ⟨m⟩ and ⟨d, t, s, g⟩:[note 1] ∅	kembt [cʰɛm̥t] "combed [past participle]"
	in most cases: [p] unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop	bær [paiːr̥] ⓘ "town"
d	between ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩ and ⟨g, n, l, k, s⟩:[note 1] ∅	lands [lans] "land's [genitive]"
	in most cases: [t] unaspirated voiceless dental stop	dalur [ˈtaːlʏr̥] ⓘ "valley"
ð	between vowels, between a vowel and a voiced consonant, word finally: [ð̠] voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative	eða [ˈɛːða] ⓘ "or"
	before an aspirated consonant[note 2] and before a pause: [θ̠] voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative	maðkur [ˈmaθkʏr̥] ⓘ "worm" bað [paːθ] ⓘ "bath"
	between ⟨r⟩ and ⟨n⟩, and between ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩: ∅	harðna [ˈhartna] "to harden" bragðs [praxs] "trick's [genitive], flavour's [genitive]"
f	word initially or before a aspirated consonant, and when doubled: [f]	fundur [ˈfʏntʏr̥] "meeting" haft [haft] "had [past participle]"
	between vowels, between a vowel and a voiced consonant, or word finally: [v]	lofa [ˈlɔːva] ⓘ "to promise" horfa [ˈhɔrva] "look"
	before ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩: [p]	Keflavík [ˈcʰɛplaˌviːk] ⓘ "Keflavík"
	between ⟨ó⟩ and a vowel: ∅	prófa [ˈpʰr̥ou.a] ⓘ "test" gulrófa [ˈkʏlˌtroua] ⓘ "rutabaga"
fnd	[mt][note 1]	hefnd [hɛmt] ⓘ "revenge"
fnt	[m̥t][note 1] (voiceless)	nefnt [nɛm̥t] ⓘ "named"
g	word initially, before a consonant or ⟨a⟩, ⟨á⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ó⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ú⟩ or ⟨ö⟩; between a vowel and ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩; or after a consonant: [k] unaspirated voiceless velar stop	glápa [ˈklauːpa] ⓘ "to stare" logn [lɔkn̥] ⓘ "windstill" borg [pɔrk] "city"
	word initially, before ⟨e⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨í⟩, ⟨j⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨ý⟩, ⟨æ⟩, ⟨ei⟩ or ⟨ey⟩: [c] unaspirated voiceless palatal stop	geta [ˈcɛːta] ⓘ "to be able"
	between a vowel and ⟨a, u, ð, r⟩; or word finally after a vowel: [ɣ] voiced velar fricative	fluga [ˈflʏːɣa] ⓘ "fly"
	before ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ or before a pause: [x] voiceless velar fricative	dragt [traxt] "suit" lag [laːx] ⓘ "layer"
	between a vowel and ⟨j⟩ or ⟨i⟩: [j] palatal approximant	segja [ˈsɛjːa] "to say"
	between ⟨á, ó, ú⟩, and ⟨a, o, u⟩: ∅	fljúga [ˈfljuː.a] "to fly"
gj	[c] unaspirated voiceless palatal stop	gjalda [ˈcalta] "to pay"
h	[h] voiceless glottal fricative	hár [hauːr̥] "hair"
hj	[ç] voiceless palatal fricative	hjá [çauː] "next to"
hl	[l̥] voiceless alveolar lateral approximant	hlýr [l̥iːr̥] "warm"
hn	[n̥] voiceless alveolar nasal	hné [n̥jɛː] "knee"
hr	[r̥] voiceless alveolar trill	hratt [r̥aʰt] "fast"
hv	[kʰv][note 3]	hvass [kʰvas] ⓘ "sharp"
j	[j]	já [jauː] "yes"
k	word initially, before a consonant or ⟨a⟩, ⟨á⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ó⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ú⟩ or ⟨ö⟩: [kʰ]	kaka [ˈkʰaːka] ⓘ "cake"
	word initially, before ⟨e⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨í⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨ý⟩, ⟨æ⟩, ⟨ei⟩ or ⟨ey⟩: [cʰ] aspirated voiceless palatal stop	keyra [ˈcʰeiːra] "to drive"
	other contexts, before ⟨a⟩, ⟨á⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ó⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ú⟩ or ⟨ö⟩: [k]	skarfur [ˈskarvʏr̥] "cormorant" haka [ˈhaːka] "chin"
	other contexts, before ⟨e⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨í⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨ý⟩, ⟨æ⟩, ⟨ei⟩ or ⟨ey⟩: [c] unaspirated voiceless palatal stop	skip [ˈscɪːp] "boat" hroki [ˈr̥ɔːcɪ] "arrogance"
	before ⟨l, m, n⟩: [ʰk]	miklir [mɪʰklɪr̥] "great (pl.)" vakna [vaʰkna] "wake up"
	before ⟨t⟩: [x] voiceless velar fricative	október [ˈɔxtouːpɛr̥] "October"
kj	word initially: [cʰ] aspirated voiceless palatal stop	kjöt [cʰœːt] "meat"
	other contexts: [c] unaspirated voiceless palatal stop	þykja [ˈθɪːca] "to regard"
kk	[ʰk], [ʰc]	þakka [ˈθaʰka] ⓘ "to thank" ekki [ˈɛʰcɪ] "not"
l	next to an aspirated consonant, before a pause: [l̥] voiceless alveolar lateral approximant	sól [souːl̥] ⓘ "sun" stúlka [ˈstul̥ka] "girl"
	in most cases: [l]	lás [lauːs] ⓘ "lock"
ll	at morpheme boundaries, in loanwords, pet names, slang and childish vocabulary: [lː]	heillegur [ˈheilːɛɣʏr] "seemingly intact" bolla [ˈpɔlːa] ⓘ "bun, bread roll" mylla [ˈmɪlːa] ⓘ "mill"
	in most cases: [tl]	bolli [ˈpɔtlɪ] ⓘ "cup" milli [ˈmɪtlɪ] ⓘ "between"
m	after and before aspirated consonants: [m̥]	lampi [ˈlam̥pɪ] "lamp"
	in most cases: [m]	mamma [ˈmamːa] "mum"
n	after and before aspirated consonants, between a voiceless consonant and a pause: [n̥]	planta [ˈpʰlan̥ta] "plant" hnífur [ˈn̥iːvʏr] "knife" nafn [napn̥] "name"
	in most cases: [n]	nafn [napn̥] "name"
ng	before ⟨d, l, s⟩:[note 1] [ŋ]	kringla [ˈkʰriŋla] "disc" gangs [ˈkauŋs] "movement's [genitive]"
	in most cases: [ŋk], [ɲc]	vængur [ˈvaiŋkʏr̥] "wing" engi [ˈeiɲcɪ] "meadow"
nk	[ŋ̊k], [ɲ̊c]	hönk [ˈhœyŋ̊k] "coil, loop" banki [ˈpauɲ̊cɪ] "bank"
nn	after broad vowels (accent bearing and graphical diphthongs): [tn]	einna [eitna] "one's [genitive plural]" fínna [fitna] "fine" [genitive plural]
	between broad vowels and a pause: [tn̥]	einn [eitn̥] "one" fínn [fitn̥] "fine"
	elsewhere: [nː]	finna [ˈfɪnːa] "to find"
p	word initially: [pʰ] aspirated voiceless bilabial stop	par [pʰaːr̥] ⓘ "pair"
	other contexts: [p] unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop	spara [ˈspaːra] ⓘ "to save" kápa [ˈkʰauːpa] "coat"
	before ⟨s, k, t⟩: [f] voiceless labiodental fricative	September [ˈsɛftɛmpɛr̥] "September" skips [scɪfs] "ship's [genitive]"
	before ⟨l, m, n⟩: [ʰp]	epli [ɛʰplɪ] "apple(s)" vopn [vɔʰpn̥] "weapon(s)"
pp	[ʰp]	stoppa [ˈstɔʰpa] ⓘ "to stop"
r	word initially and between vowels: [r] (voiced alveolar trill or tap)	rigna [ˈrɪkna] "to rain" læra [ˈlaiːra] "to learn"
	before and after aspirated consonants and before a pause: [r̥] (voiceless alveolar trill or tap)	svartur [ˈsvar̥tʏr̥] "black"
rl	[rtl],[note 4] mostly [tl][note 5]	karlasni [ˈkʰatlastnɪ] "masculinity"
	before a consonant (forming a cluster that do not simplify) or at the end of words: [rtl̥],[note 4] mostly [tl̥][note 5]	karlmaður [ˈkʰatl̥ˌmaːðʏr̥] "man"
rn	[rtn],[note 4] mostly [tn][note 5]	þorna [θɔtna] "thorns' (þs's) [gentitive]"
	before a consonant (forming a cluster that do not simplify) or at the end of words: [rtn̥],[note 4] mostly [tn̥][note 5]	þorn [θɔtn̥] "the name of the letter Þ/þ"
	before ⟨d⟩:[note 1] [rn]	vernd [vɛrnt] "protection"
s	[s]	sósa [ˈsouːsa] "sauce"
sl	[stl]	rusla [rʏstla] "to litter"
	before a pause or consonant (forming a cluster that do not simplify): [stl̥]	rusl [rʏstl̥] "garbage"
sn	[stn]	býsna [ˈpistna] "pretty, rather"
	before a pause or a consonant (forming a cluster that do not simplify): [stn̥]	býsn [ˈpistn̥] "wonder, multitude"
t	word initially: [tʰ] aspirated voiceless dental stop	taka [ˈtʰaːka] ⓘ "take"
	before ⟨l, m, n⟩: [ʰt]	Atli [aʰtlɪ] "Attila" rytmi [rɪʰtmɪ] "rhythm" vatn [vaʰtn̥] "water"
	elsewhere: [t] unaspirated voiceless dental stop	stela [ˈstɛːla] ⓘ "to steal" skutur [ˈskʏːtʏr̥] "stern"
tt	[ʰt]	detta [ˈtɛʰta] "to fall"
v	[v]	vera [ˈvɛːra] "to be"
x	[ks]	lax [laks] "salmon"
z	[s]	beztur [ˈpɛstʏr̥] "the best" (former orthography) Zakarías [ˈsaːkʰariːas] "Zachary"
þ	[θ̠] voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative	þú [θuː] ⓘ "you" Aþena [ˈaːθɛna] ⓘ "Athens"

Simplified table

Grapheme	p	b	f	v	t	d	þ	ð	k	g	kj	gj	s	h	j	l	r	m	n	nk	ng	x
sometimes	[f] (before ⟨s, k⟩)	∅ (between ⟨m⟩ and ⟨d, t, s, g⟩)	∅ (between ⟨ó⟩ and a vowel)			∅ (between ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩ and ⟨g, n, l, k, s⟩)		∅ (between ⟨r⟩ and ⟨n⟩, and between ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩)		∅ (between ⟨á, ó, ú⟩, and ⟨a, o, u⟩); [ɣ] (between a vowel and ⟨a, u, ð, r⟩); [j] (between a vowel and ⟨j⟩ or ⟨i⟩); [x] (before ⟨s⟩ or before a pause)											[ŋ] (before ⟨d, l, s⟩)
word initially, before a vowel	[pʰ]	[p]	[f]	[v]	[tʰ]	[t]	[θ̠]	-	[kʰ], [cʰ]	[k], [c]	[cʰ]	[c]	[s]	[h]	[j]	[l]	[r]	[m]	[n]	-		-
between vowels	[p]		[v]		[t]		[θ̠]	[ð̠]	[k], [c]		[c]		[s]	-	[j]	[l]	[r]	[m]	[n]	[ŋ̊k], [ɲ̊c]	[ŋk], [ɲc]
doubled	[ʰp]	-	[f]	-	[ʰt]	-	-		[ʰk], [ʰc]	-	-				-	[tl]	[rː]	[mː]	[nː], [tn̥]	-
near aspirated consonants	[p]		[f]	[v]	[t]		[θ̠]	[θ̠]	[k], [c]		[c]		[s]		[j]	[l̥]	[r̥]	[m̥]	[n̥]
near voiced consonants			[v]					[ð̠]								[l]	[r]	[m]	[n]
before ⟨l⟩	[ʰp]	-	[p]	-	[ʰt]	-	-		[ʰk]	-	-		[st]		-	-	[(r)t][note 5]	-	-
before ⟨n⟩
before ⟨m⟩			-										-				-
before ⟨t⟩	[f]				-				[x]	[x]
word finally	[p]		[v]		[t]		[θ̠]	[ð̠], [θ̠]	[k]	[ɣ]	[c]		[s]		[j]	[l̥]	[r], [r̥]	[m]	[n]	[ŋ̊k], [ɲ̊c]	[ŋk], [ɲc]	[ks]
combined with h	-		-	[kʰv]	-		-		-		-		-		[ç]	[l̥]	[r̥]	-	[n̥]	-		-
combined with nd, nt	-		[mt], [m̥t]	-

Code pages

The alphabet is included in Unicode, in code page 861. Historically, Icelandic text was supported by ISO 8859-1, followed by Windows-1252, which added various characters unrelated to Icelandic. ISO 8859-15 also includes support for Icelandic characters.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Icelandic Encyclopedia A–Ö

Notes

1. Such clusters may be pronounced with an epenthetic homorganic stop.^{[citation needed]}
2. Here is meant phonemically (pre-)aspirated, i.e. graphical ⟨p, t, k, h⟩. No stricto sensu aspiration
3. /xʷ/ or /x/ among some older speakers in southern Iceland. [xʷasː]^ⓘ
4. The pronunciation change rl→[tl] and rn→[tn] occurred in the 14th century, pronouncing them as [rtl] and [rtn] is a more recent development that may have been influenced by the orthography.^[7]
5. Most /rtn, rtl/ clusters can simplify to [tn, tl] but this is subject to formality, dialectal and idiosyncratic variations.^[8]