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James Cook
British explorer and naval officer (1728–1779) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Captain James Cook (7 November 1728[a] – 14 February 1779) was a British Royal Navy officer, explorer, and cartographer famous for his three voyages of exploration to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, conducted between 1768 and 1779. He completed the first recorded circumnavigation of the main islands of New Zealand and was the first known European to visit the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands.
Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager before enlisting in the Royal Navy in 1755. He served during the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. In the 1760s, he mapped the coastline of Newfoundland and made important astronomical observations which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment in British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages.
During these voyages, he sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped coastlines, islands, and features across the Pacific from Hawaii to Australia in greater detail than previously charted. He made contact with numerous indigenous peoples, and he claimed many territories for Britain. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.
In 1779, during his second visit to Hawaii, Cook was killed when a dispute with indigenous Hawaiians turned violent. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century. Numerous memorials have been dedicated to him worldwide. However, he remains a controversial figure because of his violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and allegations that he facilitated British colonialism in the Pacific.
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Early life
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James Cook was born on 7 November 1728[a] in the village of Marton, located in the North Riding of Yorkshire, approximately eight miles from the sea.[1][2][b] He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.[1][3][4] In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school.[5] In 1741, after five years of schooling, he began work for his father who had been promoted to farm manager. For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.[6]
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In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.[1] Historian Vanessa Collingridge speculates that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.[7]
After 18 months, Cook, not proving suited for shop work, travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby and was introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker. The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade.[8][9] Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.[10]
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His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on merchant ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.[11]
Family
On 21 December 1762, Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts – keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping and one of Cook's mentors – at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.[12][13][c] The couple had six children:[14][15] James (1763–1794),[d] Nathaniel (1764–1780),[e] Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772), and Hugh (1776–1793).[f] Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own.[15] When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London and attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell.[15][16]
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Royal Navy
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In 1755, Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in the military than in commercial shipping, despite the need to start at the bottom of the naval hierarchy. So at age 26, he entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.[17]
Cook's first posting was with HMS Eagle, serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.[18] In October and November 1755, he took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties.[17] His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.[17][19] In June 1757, Cook passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.[20] He then joined the sixth-rate frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.[21][g]
Canada
During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel HMS Pembroke.[23] With others in Pembroke's crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759.[24]
The day after the fall of Louisbourg, Cook met an army officer, Samuel Holland, who was using a plane table to survey the area.[25] The two men had an immediate connection through their interest in surveying, and Holland taught Cook the methods he was using. They collaborated on developing preliminary charts of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River, with Cook most likely the author of the sailing directions for the river written in 1758. The combination of Holland's land-surveying techniques[h] and Cook's hydrographic skills enabled the latter, from that time onwards, to produce nautical charts for coastal areas that substantially exceeded the accuracy of such Admiralty charts of the time.[27][28] As General Wolfe's advance on Quebec progressed in 1759, Cook and the other masters of ships in the English fleet worked to chart and mark the shoals of the river, particularly near to Quebec itself. The close approach by the ships of the Royal Navy through these shallow waters allowed General Wolfe to make his successful stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.[29][30]
Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard HMS Grenville. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. Cook employed local pilots to point out the rocks and hidden dangers along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, local pilots were engaged to assist with mapping Fortune Bay, Connaigre Bay, Hermitage Bay, the Bay d'Espoir and the coast west of St. Lawrence.[31][i]
While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766.[32] By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England, it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.[33]
Cook's hydrographic surveys in Newfoundland – conducted over five seasons – produced the first large-scale, accurate maps of the island's coasts. They were the first large-scale surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.[34] They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's charts were used for over 100 years.[35]
At the end of the 1767 surveying season, while HMS Grenville was returning to her home port of Deptford, Cook encountered a storm at the entrance to the Thames. He anchored Grenville off the Nore lighthouse and prepared the ship to ride out the weather. One anchor cable broke, and the ship went aground on a shoal. Despite efforts to improve the situation, Cook and his crew were obliged to abandon ship. They returned when the storm eventually abated, lightened and re-rigged the ship and continued into Deptford.[36][37]
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First voyage (1768–1771)
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Cook's first scientific voyage was a three-year expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard HMS Endeavour, conducted from 1768 to 1771. The voyage was jointly sponsored by the Royal Navy and Royal Society.[38][j] The publicly stated goal was to observe the 1769 transit of Venus from the vantage point of Tahiti.[39][40] Additional objectives – outlined in sealed orders not to be opened until Cook reached Tahiti – were searching for the postulated Terra Australis Incognita (undiscovered southern land) and claiming lands for Britain.[39][40][41][41][k][l]
In early 1768, the Admiralty asked shipwright Adam Hayes to select a vessel for the expedition; he chose the merchant collier Earl of Pembroke, which the Royal Navy renamed Endeavour.[46][47][48][m] On 5 May 1768 – based on the recommendation of Hugh Palliser – Cook, age 39, was selected by the Admiralty to lead the voyage.[50][n] The next day, he took his examination for the rank of lieutenant – a rank that was required for the captain of a ship armed with the number of guns planned for Endeavour.[50][51][o]
Like most colliers, Endeavour had a large hold, a sturdy construction that would tolerate grounding, was small enough to be careened for repairs, and had a small draft that enabled navigating in shallows.[52][53] Upon completion of the first voyage, Cook wrote "It was to these properties in her, those on board owe their Preservation. Hence I was enabled to prosecute Discoveries in those Seas so much longer than any other Man ever did or could do."[52] When selecting ships for his second voyage in 1772, Cook chose the same type of ship, from the same shipbuilder.[54]
The Admiralty authorised a ship's company of 73 sailors and 12 Royal Marines.[55] Cook's second lieutenant was Zachary Hicks, and his third lieutenant was John Gore, a 16-year Naval veteran who had circumnavigated the world in 1766 aboard HMS Dolphin.[56][57] Also on the ship were astronomer Charles Green and botanist Joseph Banks.[58] Banks provided funding for seven others to join the journey, including naturalists, artists, a secretary, and two servants.[59]
Transit of Venus
The expedition departed England on 26 August 1768.[60] Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.[61] However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped.[62] Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which instructed him to search for the postulated southern continent of Terra Australis.[63]
New Zealand and Australia
From Tahiti, Cook sailed to New Zealand and landed near the Tūranganui River.[64] Encounters with the Māori on the first two days were violent: a Māori was shot and killed on each of the days.[64][65] Cook then sailed around both of New Zealand's main islands, mapping the complete coastline.[66][67] With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.[68]
The expedition continued west and, on 19 April 1770,[p] they sighted Point Hicks and became the first recorded Europeans to encounter Australia's eastern coastline.[69][70][q] Endeavour continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight, while Cook charted and named landmarks along the way.[71] On 23 April, Cook saw Aboriginal Australians for the first time at Brush Island near Bawley Point.[72][r]
On 29 April, they made their first landfall on the continent in Botany Bay, at the east end of Silver Beach.[s] In the expedition's first direct encounter with Aboriginal Australians, two Gweagal men of the Dharawal / Eora nation opposed the landing, and one of them was shot and wounded by Cook's crew.[75][76][77] Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, exploring the surrounding area and collecting water, timber, fodder, and botanical specimens.[78] Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous population – without success.[79][80][t]
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After departing Botany Bay, they continued northwards, hugging the coast and charting it.[84] They stopped at Bustard Bay on 23 May 1770, then proceeded north through the shallow and extremely dangerous Great Barrier Reef.[85] On 11 June Endeavour ran aground on the reef at high tide.[86] The ship was stuck fast, so Cook ordered all excess weight thrown overboard, including six cannons and some of the ship's ballast. She was eventually hauled off after 27 hours, on the second high tide after the grounding.[87] The ship was leaking badly, so the crew fothered the damage (hauled a spare sail under the ship to cover and slow the leak).[86] Cook then careened the ship on a beach at the mouth of the Endeavour River for seven weeks while repairs were undertaken.[88][89]
The voyage continued northward until they reached the northeast tip of Australia: Cape York. Searching for a vantage point to look for a route forward, Cook saw a hill on a nearby island. On 22 August 1770, he stood atop the island and claimed the entire Australian coast that he had surveyed as British territory, and named the island Possession Island.[90][91] The expedition then turned west and continued homeward through the shallow and dangerous waters of the Torres Strait.
Return to England
In October 1770, Cook stopped in Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where the Dutch dockyard facilities were used to inspect and repair the damage from running aground on the Great Barrier Reef.[92] While in Batavia, seven of his crew died from malaria, and 40 were sickened.[93] From Batavia, he sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, then to the island of Saint Helena, arriving on 30 April 1771.[94] The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in the Downs, and Cook disembarked to go to the town of Deal in Kent.[95][u]
Shortly after his return, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.[96][97] A book based on the journals of Cook and Banks of the voyage was published in 1773.[98][99][v] Banks received accolades from the press and the scientific community.[100] Banks planned to travel with Cook in the second voyage, but his excessive demands for modifications to the ship conflicted with the Admiralty's constraints, so he removed himself from the voyage before it departed.[101][w]
Second voyage (1772–1775)
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In 1772, Cook was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, with the objective of determining the existence of the hypothetical continent Terra Australis.[103][104]
This voyage would have two ships and, unlike the first voyage, Cook selected them himself: HMS Resolution commanded by Cook, and HMS Adventure, commanded by Tobias Furneaux.[105][104] Resolution began her career as the North Sea collier Marquis of Granby, launched at Whitby in 1770. She was fitted out at Deptford with the most advanced navigational aids of the day, including an azimuth compass, ice anchors, and an apparatus for distilling fresh water from sea water.[106]
Crew included astronomer William Wales (responsible for the new K1 chronometer carried on the Resolution), lieutenant Charles Clerke, artist William Hodges, and naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, Georg Forster.[102]
Search for Terra Australis
After departing England, the ships travelled south to South Africa and stopped at Cape Town in November 1772.[107] From there they sailed eastward, planning to circumnavigate the globe roughly between 50°S and 70°S latitude.[107][x] In late November 1772, the ships sighted the first icebergs and Cook performed an experiment: his crew chopped blocks of ice from ice flows and melted them onboard the ships, producing good quality fresh water, proving that drinking water could be obtained from sea ice.[109] On 17 January 1773 the crews became the first recorded Europeans to cross the Antarctic Circle.[109][110] Despite his mission to find Terra Australis, Cook never sighted Antarctica in any of his voyages; but on 18 January – unbeknownst to him – the ships approached within 75 miles (121 km) of Antarctica.[109]
In February 1773, in dense Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated.[111] Furneaux made his way – via Tasmania[y] – to a pre-arranged rendezvous point to be used in the event of separation: Queen Charlotte Sound in New Zealand. Cook joined Furneaux in New Zealand in May.[112] The crews traded with the Māori people, and in his journal, Cook lamented the fact that Europeans were possibly transmitting diseases to the indigenous people and encouraging prostitution.[113]
In June, the ships departed New Zealand – in the southern winter – to resume their eastward search for Terra Australis.[114] About a month after leaving New Zealand, 20 crewmen of the Adventure contracted scurvy because Furneaux had failed to follow Cook's dietary instructions.[115] The ships proceeded in a small anti-clockwise loop, visiting Tahiti and Tonga, planning to return to New Zealand together.[116] Before reaching New Zealand, in the night of 29–30 October, the ships became separated for a second time – this time caused by a storm.[117] Cook proceeded to the rendezvous point, and waited three weeks, then departed to continue the voyage alone.[117]
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Ships become separated
Delayed by storms, Furneaux arrived at the designated rendezvous point in Queen Charlotte Sound five weeks after they separated, missing Cook by four days.[117] While eleven members of the Adventure’s crew were ashore gathering provisions, a violent altercation occurred with a group of Māori, resulting in the deaths of all the crewmen and two Māori.[117] Furneaux later discovered the bodies of the crew members, partially burned in preparation for cannibalism.[117]
Many members of the Adventure's crew wanted to exact revenge on the Māori, but Furneaux thought it prudent to avoid additional violence, so they left New Zealand and quickly returned to Britain, alone.[119][z] When learning about the deaths much later,[aa] Cook wondered if Furneaux's crew was at fault, writing "I must ... observe in favour of the New Zealanders that I have always found them of a brave, noble, open and benevolent disposition".[121]
After the missed rendezvous, Resolution made a large anti-clockwise loop in the south Pacific: heading far south, then visiting Easter Island, Tofua, Melanesia, and New Zealand.[122] In the first stretch of the large loop, the Resolution continued her search for Terra Australis by heading southeast, reaching her most southern latitude of 71°10′S in January 1774.[123] When his ship reached that southernmost point, and progress was blocked by impenetrable pack ice, Cook wrote in his private diary: "I will not say it was impossible anywhere to get in among this Ice, but I will assert that the bare attempting of it would be a very dangerous enterprise and what I believe no man in my situation would have thought of. I whose ambition leads me not only farther than any other man has been before me, but as far as I think it possible for man to go...".[124]
When Cook returned to Queen Charlotte Sound, the Māori were apprehensive because they believed that Cook would take revenge for the deaths of the eleven men from the Adventure, but Cook was unaware of the killings.[125]
Return to England
Leaving New Zealand, the Resolution proceeded home, sailing south of Tierra del Fuego, and stopping at South Georgia Island in January 1775, where Cook charted the coast and claimed the island group in the name of his king.[126] From there, they travelled to South Africa, then north back to Britain.[127][ab]
The primary objective of the second voyage was to determine if the hypothesised continent Terra Australis existed. After the trip, the general conclusion was that the landmass did not exist, because it was imagined to extend into the temperate latitudes, and Cook had demonstrated that no polar landmass reached beyond about 50°.[128][129]
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Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital.[130] He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.[131] His fame extended beyond the Admiralty: he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.[132] Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; and he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".[20]
Third voyage (1776–1779)
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The primary objective of Cook's third expedition was to search for a Northwest Passage connecting the north Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic.[133][134][ac] To keep the goal of the mission secret, the Admiralty publicly declared that its aim was to return Polynesian native Omai to his home in Tahiti.[135][134][ad]
On this voyage, Cook again commanded the Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMS Discovery.[137][ae] Cook's lieutenants included John Gore and James King.[137] William Bligh was the master.[137][af] William Anderson was surgeon and botanist, William Bayly served as astronomer, and John Webber was the official artist.[137] Among the midshipmen was George Vancouver.[137][ag] Welshman David Samwell served as the surgeon's mate.[143][ah]
Hawaii
The third voyage began by sailing south from England, around South Africa, and into the Pacific Ocean.[145] After stopping in New Zealand, the expedition returned Omai to his homeland of Tahiti.[146]
Cook continued northward and – after a brief stop at Kiritimati Atoll – became the first recorded European to see the Hawaiian Islands, on 18 January 1778.[147][ai] During this first visit to Hawaii, they made landfall at two locations: Waimea harbour on the island of Kauai, and the nearby island of Nihau.[149][147][aj] When he first stepped ashore, the Hawaiians prostrated themselves in front of Cook.[149][147] Cook and his naturallists observed remarkable similarities between the cultures of Hawaii and Tahiti, including language, marae structures, religion, and treatment of the dead.[149] He named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.[147][ak]
North America
From Hawaii, Cook sailed northeast to reach the west coast of North America and begin his search for a Northwest Passage.[150] He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming it Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43° before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.[151] He unwittingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island.[152] Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in a cove at the south end of Bligh Island.[153][al] After leaving Nootka Sound, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.[151]
By the second week of August 1778, Cook had sailed through the Bering Strait, crossed the Arctic Circle, and sailed into the Chukchi Sea.[155] He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′ north.[156] Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait.[157] During this voyage, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gap between earlier explorations of the north Pacific – the Russian (from the west) and the Spanish (from the south).[20] By early September 1778, he was back in the Bering Sea on his way to return to Hawaii.[158]
Cook became increasingly frustrated and irritable on this voyage, and sometimes exhibited irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they considered inedible.[159][160]
Return to Hawaii
Cook returned to Hawaii in late November 1779.[161] The ships sailed throughout the archipelago for eight weeks, surveying and trading.[162][am] After stops in Maui and Kauai, Cook made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago.[164]
On the large island, Cook met with the Hawaiian king Kalaniʻōpuʻu, who treated Cook with respect, and invited him to participate in several ceremonies. The king and Cook exchanged gifts, and the king presented Cook with a feathered cloak.[165] Several members of the expedition concluded that the Hawaiians considered Cook a deity, and that interpretation (specifically, that Cook was considered to be the Polynesian god Lono) has been endorsed by some scholars.[166][167][168][169][an] Academic Gananath Obeyesekere, however, states that the Hawaiians did not consider Cook to be a deity.[172][ao]
Death
After a month on the largest island, Cook set sail to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific, but shortly after departure a strong gale caused Resolution's foremast to break, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.[173][174]
Relations between the crew and the Hawaiians were already strained before the departure, and they grew worse when the ship returned for repairs.[175][ap] Numerous quarrels broke out and petty thefts were common. On 13 February 1779, a group of Hawaiians stole one of Cook's cutters.[177][178]
The following day, Cook attempted to recover the cutter by kidnapping and ransoming the king, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.[179][180][181] Cook and a small party marched through the village to retrieve the king.[182][179] Cook led Kalaniʻōpuʻu away; as they got to the boats, one of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kānekapōlei, and two chiefs approached the group. They pleaded with the king not to go and a large crowd began to form at the shore.[183][180] News reached the Hawaiians that high-ranking Hawaiian chief Kalimu had been shot (on the other side of the bay) while trying to break through a British blockade – this exacerbated the already tense situation.[184][185][186] Hawaiian warriors confronted the landing party and threatened them with stones, clubs and daggers.[180][186] Cook fired a warning shot, then shot one of the Hawaiians dead.[180] The Hawaiians continued to attack and the British fired more shots before retreating to the boats.[180][186] Cook and four marines were killed in the affray and left on the shore.[180][184][187][188] Seventeen Hawaiians were killed.[189][aq][ar]
Aftermath
The bodies of Cook and the marines were taken inland to a village by Hawaiians.[194][as] King took a boat to the opposite side of the bay, and was approached by a priest who offered to intercede and ask for Cook's remains to be returned; King consented.[197] Some crewmen returned to the location of the attack, and skirmishes broke out, resulting in the death of several Hawaiians.[194] The following day, some of Cook's remains were returned to the Resolution, including several bones, the skull, some charred flesh, and the hands with the skin still attached.[198] Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition.[199] The crew placed the remains in a weighted box, and buried their captain at sea.[194][197]
The ships left the bay on 23 February 1779, and spent five weeks charting the coasts of the islands – in accordance with a plan set out by Cook before his death.[200] They travelled through the archipelago, stopping at Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai.[200] On 1 April, they departed the Hawaiian islands and sailed north to again try to locate the Northwest Passage.[201][202] Clerke stopped in Kamchatka and entrusted Cook's journal, with a cover letter describing Cook's death, to the local military commander, Magnus von Behm.[203] Behm had the package delivered, overland, from Siberia to England.[203] The Admiralty, and all of England, learned of Cook's death when the package arrived in London – eleven months after he died; the package had arrived in England before the surviving crew.[204][205][206][at]
Continuing north, the expedition made it to the Bering Strait, but was again blocked by pack ice, and unable to discover a Northwest Passage.[207] Clerke died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of the Resolution and the expedition. Lieutenant James King replaced Gore in command of Discovery.[208] The ships returned home, reaching England on 4 October 1780.[au] After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.[209][210]
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Legacy
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Perspective
Navigation
Cook's three voyages to the Pacific Ocean vastly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, including the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific contributed to the fields of hydrographic and geographic knowledge.[212]
On his second and third voyages, Cook carried Larcum Kendall's K1 chronometer – a copy of John Harrison's H4 – to test if it could accurately keep time for extended periods while withstanding the violent motions of a ship. It performed well and thus made a key contribution to solving the longitude problem that had plagued mariners for centuries.[213][214] Cook praised the timepiece profusely.[215][216]
Science
Cook was a pioneer in the prevention of scurvy and implemented several successful strategies, including regular replenishment of fresh food.[217][218][219][220][av] During his first circumnavigation of the globe, he achieved the remarkable feat of not losing a single crew member to the disease – an uncommon outcome at the time.[217][221] In addition to diet, Cook also promoted general hygiene by having the crew wash themselves frequently and air-out their bedding, clothes, and quarters.[222][223] In recognition of his contributions to medical and naval science, he was awarded the prestigious Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1776, following his presentation on scurvy prevention.[224][225]
Cook and Banks became the first Europeans to have extensive contact with a large number of peoples in the Pacific. They identified similarities between cultures and languages across many Pacific Islands, leading them to suggest that the populations shared a common origin in Asia.[149][226][227][aw] Significant observations and discoveries were made by the scientists that Cook carried on each his voyages. Two botanists, Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage and collected over 3,000 plant species.[228][t] Recognition of the scientific benefits of Cook's expeditions extended beyond Britain. In 1779, Benjamin Franklin, then ambassador to France for the American colonies, wrote to captains of colonial warships, asking them to refrain from interfering with Cook's ships, citing the nature of Cook's endeavours.[229][ax]
Commemorations
United Kingdom
When news of Cook's death reached England, he was praised by newspapers, colleagues, and friends.[ay] One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Hugh Palliser, a friend of Cook.[230][231][az]
A large obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton,[234] along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.[235] There is also a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church.[236]
The Navigators' Memorial in Westminster Abbey, dedicated to Cook, Francis Drake and Francis Chichester, was unveiled in 1979.[237]
The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park (1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.[238][ba] The Captain Cook Memorial Museum in Whitby is located in a building where Cook sometimes stayed during his naval apprenticeship.[242]
Also named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003, near to the James Cook railway station.[243] The Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal Research Fleet,[244] and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. A statue erected in his honour can be viewed near Admiralty Arch on the south side of The Mall in London. In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.[245]
Australia
Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England at the behest of the Australian philanthropist Russell Grimwade in 1934.[246][247][248] The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia, was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970.[249] There are statues of Cook in Hyde Park in Sydney, and at St Kilda in Melbourne.[250]
In 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, and have continued the tradition each year, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people.[251][252] They celebrate the first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous people, when a Guugu Yimithirr elder stepped in after some of Cook's men had violated custom by taking green turtles from the river and not sharing with the local people. He presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing possible bloodshed.[251][252]
United States
The site where Cook was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk. The small plot of land surrounding the marker was purportedly deeded to Britain in 1877 by Princess Likelike and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn.[253][254][255][bb][bc] NASA named several craft after Cook's ships, including the Apollo 15 Command/Service Module Endeavour, the Space Shuttle Endeavour, and the Space Shuttle Discovery.[257][258][259] There is a statue of Cook at Resolution Park in Anchorage, Alaska.[260] A U.S. coin, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, carries Cook's image.[261]
Canada
A statue of James Cook in Victoria, BC, Canada – which was constructed in 1976 – was destroyed on Canada Day in 2021 by protestors drawing attention to the effects of the Canadian Indian residential school system.[262][263]
Ethnographic collections
The Australian Museum in Sydney holds over 250 objects associated with Cook's voyages. The objects are mostly from Polynesia although there are also artefacts from the Solomon Islands, North America and South America. Many of the artefacts were collected during first contact between Europeans and indigenous peoples of the Pacific.[264][265] The largest collection of artefacts from Cook's voyages is the Cook-Forster Collection held at the University of Göttingen.[266][bd]
Places named after Cook
Cook's name has been given to the Cook Islands, Cook Strait, Cook Inlet, Cooktown, and Cook crater on the Moon.[267] Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.[268] Another Mount Cook is on the border between the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory.[269] Hawaii has a town named Captain Cook, near his place of death.
Controversy
Cook is a controversial figure due several violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and allegations that he played a role in facilitating British colonialism. Cook and his crew killed an estimated 45 indigenous people during the three voyages, including nine Māori and thirty Hawaiians.[be]
Scholars continue to debate the extent to which Cook can be held responsible for the subsequent European colonization of the Pacific.[bf] A number of commentators argue that Cook enabled British imperialism and colonialism in the Pacific.[273][274][275][276][t] Historian Glyndwr Williams points out that the Admiralty's orders to Cook on the first voyage explicitly required Cook to obtain consent of indigenous peoples before claiming the land for Britain – yet Cook claimed the east coast of Australia without securing their consent.[277][k]
Historian Robert Tombs defended Cook against accusations that he initiated British imperialism in the Pacific, arguing that European influence in the region was inevitable, and that Cook was more humane and enlightened that most of his contemporaries. Tombs suggested that blaming Cook for 21st century racism and inequities is facile and avoids addressing the underlying social issues.[278]
The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration. Several countries, including Australia and New Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage,[279][280] leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the violence associated with his contacts with Indigenous peoples.[273][281] In the lead-up to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised, and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives.[282][283] Attacks on public monuments to Cook also occurred in Canada and Australia.[250][284][285][286]
Indigenous people have campaigned for the return of Indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages.[287][bg] The art historian Alice Proctor has suggested that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over resistance to colonialist narratives and the decolonisation of museums and public spaces.[274]
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