Landscape planning

For the journal, see Landscape Planning (journal).

Landscape planning, a branch of landscape architecture, is a multidisciplinary field that analyzes, evaluates, and guides landscape change across area and time scales. It links scientific data with land-use regulations and spatial design, along with stakeholder goals to support how landscapes should develop and evolve. because landscapes function as social-ecological systems, landscape planners try to balance ecological integrity, cultural values, and human well being while dealing with pressure from urbanization and climate change and the amount of resources available to them. ^[1]

Landscape planning typically follows a structured sequence, starting with goal development followed by landscape analysis, development and evaluation of alternatives, selecting the preferred options, implementation, and monitoring. The planning process follows long standing and established ecological planning methods which use landscape structure, function, change, and scale to diagnose current conditions and predict future scenarios and potential outcomes.^[2] Landscape planning was origianally used int he context of non-urban land use, but it has evolved to be commonly used to adress urban, peri-urban, and rural environments an treat them as interconnected systems instead of independent environments. The field has evolved because scientists now understand that most landscapes exist as urbanized social–ecological systems which result from ecological processes and cultural practices and economic activities and institutional frameworks.^[1]

According to Erv Zube (1931–2002) landscape planning is defined as an activity concerned with developing landscaping amongst competing land uses while protecting natural processes and significant cultural and natural resources. Park systems and greenways of the type designed by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners analyze broad issues as well as project characteristics which constrain design projects.

Landscape planners may work on projects which are of broad geographical scope, concern many land uses or many clients or are implemented over a long period of time. As an example, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.

Landscape planning is the process of analyzing and organizing land resources as well as water resources to create sustainable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing landscapes. It integrates ecological, social, cultural, and economic factors to guide spatial development and environmental management.

In Europe

Alberti wrote on the need for town squares for markets and specific implementations to make most use of the space.^[3] In North Europe this developed into the idea that residential squares should be planned around green spaces. The first space of this type was the Place des Vosges. Residential squares were also made in Britain and their planning developed into the idea of incorporating public open space (public parks within towns). Frederick Law Olmsted gave momentum to this idea with his proposal for a park systems in Boston - the famous Emerald Necklace. Patrick Abercrombie took up this idea and incorporated it in his great 1943-4 Open Space Plan for the County of London. An example of landscape planning in use is the plans of RWE in the wake of its mining operations and how they plan to use leftover detritus and soil in their re-cultivation efforts to restore the damaged ecosystems and landscapes created by open pit mines (e.g. Garzweiler surface mine).^[4]

In the UK

Landscape planning in the United Kingdom developed from early preservation and public amenity movements into a formal component of spatial and environmental planning. Interests in the scenic and cultural value of the countryside during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries led to the establishment of organizations such as the National Trust in 1895 and to wider debated on the protection of "natural beauty," "cultural heritage," and access to open space.^[5] Early twentieth century planners, notably Patrick Abercrombie,^[5][6] promoted systematic landscape surveys within regional plans, linking the conservation of rural areas with the management of urban growth. Following the Second World War, the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 established national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs), creating a statuary framework for the protection of valued landscapes throughout England and Wales (and later Northern Ireland).^[7][8] These initiatives reflected both heritage and social welfare objectives, providing for public enjoyment as well as preservation. The Countryside Act 1968, and the earlier Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967, extended this approach by emphasizing countryside recreation, ecological conservation, and the planning of rural landscapes beyond areas of scenic value. During the 1960s and 1970s, the growth of environmental awareness and applied ecology influenced the practice of landscape planning.^[5] The emergence of ecological design, informed by works such as Ian McHarg's Design with Nature (1969), and the introduction of environment impact procedures through the Environmental Assessment Regulations 1988, helped to integrate environmental science into planning processes. From the late twentieth century, landscape character assessment (LCA)^[5] became a widely adopted method for describing, classifying, and managing landscape types across the United Kingdom. The approach treated landscape as a product of both natural and cultural processes and supported the view that all landscapes have distinct characteristics deserving of consideration in planning and policy.

In the early twenty-first century, the European Landscape Convention (2000)^[5] reinforced these developments by recognizing landscape as a universal and evolving phenomenon, extending planning reponsibilites to Urban, peri-urban, and degraded areas as well as to traditionally protected countryside. UK government agencies including Natural England, NatureScot (formerly Scottish Natural Heritage), and the Countryside Council for Wales, incorporated these principles into national and regional frameworks that link landscape character, biodiversity, and cultural identity with sustainable development and community participation. Contemporary landscape planning in the UK therefore operates across urban and rural contexts, balancing conservation and development objectives and contributing to broader agendas of regeneration, climate adaptation, and sustainable land management.

In the US

In the United States, landscape architects provide landscape planning services focused on the natural environment along with urban planners. But, unlike Canada and Europe, the US does not have a national land use planning system. Frederick Law Olmsted and Ian McHarg are two influential American landscape architects that also worked as planners. McHarg's work on overlay landscape planning contributed to the development of GIS and to the foundation of ESRI by Jack Dangermond.

In Asia and Singapore

Landscape planning in Asia particularly in rapidly urbanizing and densely populated places such as the city state of Singapore presents unique challenges and opportunities. Traditional notions of landscape (gardens, green belts, public parks) are being reinterpreted in the context of high-density development, tropical climates, limited land, and increasing climate risks ^[4]

In Asia, the interplay of cultural heritage, ecological sensitivity, rapid economic development and urban expansion makes landscape planning a dynamic and evolving field. A growing body of scholarship highlights how “green infrastructure” and multifunctional landscapes are being used to enhance livability, resilience and ecosystem services in East and Southeast Asian cities. ^[9]

Legislation

The principles of landscape planning are now incorporated in various types of legislation and policy documents. In America, the National Environmental Policy Act was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg on Environmental impact assessment. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships between development and the landscape. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. The Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have extensive impacts on the landscape. They have been planned to a degree but future monitoring of the project is likely to show that better landscape planning and design would have been possible. See also, National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, Countryside Act 1968, Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967, and Environmental Assessment Regulations 1988.

Methodology

The landscape planning process is commonly described as a sequence of interconnected stages used to guide the assessment, design, and long-term management of landscapes. Although the order and emphasis of steps may vary based on project specifics many frameworks outline a similar progression of steps.^[10][11]

Framework includes:

• Identification of problems and opportunities (establishing the key issues to be addressed and potential areas for improvement.)
• Goal setting (defining desired outcomes and planning objectives.)
• Biophysical inventory and analysis (collecting and evaluating information on soils, water, vegetation, climate, and other environmental components.)
• Human community inventory and analysis (examining social, cultural, and economic conditions, community needs, and stakeholder values.)
• Development and evaluation of alternative concepts (generating planning options and assessing their feasibility and potential impacts.)
• Plan adoption (selecting a preferred option and formalizing the plan.)
• Public involvement and education (engaging stakeholders throughout the process to ensure transparency and local input.)
• Detailed design (translating planning principles into site specific design proposals.)
• Implementation (carrying out the adopted plan through construction, policy actions, or management strategies.)
• Administration and monitoring (overseeing the plans execution and evaluating its performance over time.)

Landscape planning is not limited to ecological approaches, but ecological principles often play a significant role. Steiner (1991) defines ecological planning as “the use of biophysical and sociocultural information to identify opportunities and constraints for decision making about the use of landscape.” This perspective highlights the integration of scientific information with community values to guide land use decisions.

Because landscape planning is applied in a wide range of geographic, cultural, and regulatory contexts, the process is inherently adaptable. The sequence of steps may be modified to address specific goals such as conservation, urban development, recreation planning, or climate adaptation. This flexibility allows landscape planning to serve as a framework for both small-scale site design and large-scale regional planning efforts.

Impacts and implications

Results of proper implementations of landscape planning practices are not only limited to more functional landscapes. It can also influence for the better many aspects of the environment and community in which it is used to its potential. While the chief purpose of landscape planning is for ecological reasons it can impact so much more when used effectively as a tool.

Ecology

Landscape planning is mainly used for ecological purposes and functions best when the result of the planning process is the least amount of interruption of ecological factors from before the implementation ever went into place.^[12] In this practice landscape planning can be used to not only maintain the status of the existing environment, but also can be used to improve aspects of previously under performing ecosystems, for example, designing to increase biodiversity. For example Landscape planning could be used to create additional habitat for endangered species, and reclamation of previously used or depleted lands (e.g. old agricultural spaces) for expansion of natural ecosystems.^[9] This also includes planning in order to reduce the impact of the changes to the environment. with proper landscape planning, a greater speed of recovery for the ecosystems of interrupted spaces is achievable.

Health

Similar to the impacts of healing gardens, the positive healing effects of proper implementations of planned landscapes are of great benefit. When people are exposed to nature, they would find that their overall mood had improved and that they recover from stress and illness at an accelerated rate. With the proper use of landscape planning, health within an urban leaning environment in regards to stress and recovery can be greatly improved above the unplanned alternative.^[13] When landscape planning is used to properly conserve ecological systems that may have been displaced, it makes it so recreational use of the environment is maintained while conserving the systems for people to enjoy.

Use of other technologies in context

The development of GIS technology such as those developed by ESRI, have great import to the practice of Landscape planning. Use of assisting technology allows for the conditions and factors existing in a landscape to be easily aggregated and analyzed. Through the use of GIS technology you are able to answer many of the questions about a landscape that is in question. such as, "how functional is this landscape?" or "to what extent do the factors outside of the site affect the planning that needs to be done?"^[14] The use of technology that is developing with greater and greater accuracy has the ability to make sustainable developments easier and more common across the globe.

Impactful Projects

1. Ecological Regional Planning^[15]

The Netherlands – Room for the River Programme^[16]

• Major national program redesigning floodplains to reduce flood risk while restoring riverine landscapes.
• Integrates hydrology, ecology, agriculture, and urban planning.
• Frequently cited in resilience and landscape planning literature.

The Green Heart (Groene Hart), Netherlands

• A long-term regional landscape plan preserving agricultural and natural land between major Dutch cities.
• A classic example of balancing urbanization and landscape conservation.

The Plan for the Valle de Aburrá (Colombia)

• Regional ecological planning integrating river restoration, public space, and transit.
• Internationally recognized for landscape-led urban resilience.

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2. Large-Scale Urban Green Infrastructure

The High Line (New York City, USA)

• Conversion of an abandoned rail line into an elevated greenway.
• Groundbreaking in landscape urbanism and adaptive reuse.

The Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration (Seoul, South Korea)^[17]

• Removal of a highway to restore a historic stream and create a new landscape corridor.
• Globally cited for ecological restoration and urban planning.

Singapore’s Park Connector Network & National Biodiversity Strategy^[18]

• A citywide green infrastructure network integrating parks, waterways, and ecological corridors.
• Often referenced as a model for nature-based urban planning.

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3. Landscape Urbanism & New Town Planning

Hammarby Sjöstad (Stockholm, Sweden)

• Eco-district featuring integrated water management, energy systems, and landscape design.
• Example of sustainable landscape-integrated planning at a district scale.

Vauban District (Freiburg, Germany)

• Landscape-driven planning for transit-oriented, low-carbon living.
• Includes green corridors, stormwater landscapes, and car-free design.

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4. Climate Adaptation / Coastal Resilience

East Side Coastal Resiliency (New York City, USA)

• Large-scale waterfront plan integrating flood protection, parks, and ecological restoration.
• Key example of climate adaptation through landscape planning.

Thames Estuary 2100 Plan (United Kingdom)

• Long-term landscape and flood management strategy for the Thames River corridor.
• Uses adaptive pathways planning for climate resilience.

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5. Landscape Conservation & Cultural Landscapes^[19]

UNESCO Cultural Landscape Programs^[20]

These individual sites are often used as landscape planning case studies:

• The Loire Valley Cultural Landscape (France)^[21]
• Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras^[22][23]
• Tuscany Agricultural Landscapes (Italy)^[24][25]

All demonstrate long term planning across ecological, agricultural, and cultural dimensions.

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6. Regional Greenway & Open Space Systems

The Green Belt (United Kingdom)

• Long-standing regional planning approach managing growth and preserving landscape around major cities such as London.

Boston's Emerald Necklace (USA)

• Frederick Law Olmsted’s pioneering linked park system, foundational in landscape planning history.

The Atlanta Beltline (USA)

• Landscape driven redevelopment of approximately 22 mile rail corridor into parkland and active transportation networks.

See also

• Landscape architecture
• Landscape manager
• Landscape ecology
• Landscape Institute
• Landscape urbanism
• Environmental impact assessment
• Urban design
• Growth management
• Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
• Sustainable city
• Sustainable landscape architecture
• European Landscape Convention
• Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape

Footnotes

• Landscape planning education in America: retrospect and prospect
• Ecological design and planning George F. Thompson and Frederick R. Steiner, (Wiley, 1997)
• Landscape planning : an introduction to theory and practice Hackett, Brian (Oriel, 1971)
• Landscape planning and environmental impact design Tom Turner (2nd ed UCL Press, 1998)
• Design with nature Ian L. McHarg ( Wiley, 1992)
• The living landscape: an ecological approach to landscape planning Steiner, Frederick R. (McGraw-Hill College, 1991)