Landscape planning

For the journal, see Landscape Planning (journal).

Landscape planning, a branch of landscape architecture, is a multidisciplinary field that analyzes, evaluates, and guides landscape change across area and time scales. It links scientific data with land-use regulations and spatial design, along with stakeholder goals to support how landscapes should develop and evolve. because landscapes function as social-ecological systems, landscape planners try to balance ecological integrity, cultural values, and human well being while dealing with pressure from urbanization and climate change and the amount of resources available to them. ^[1]

This picture shows a product of landscaping which balances ecological integrity, cultural values while dealing with pressures from the need for transportation. File:淡路景観園芸学校 Awaji Landscape Planning ^ Horticulture Academy - panoramio.jpg

Landscape Map of Central Park

Landscape planning typically follows a structured sequence, starting with goal development followed by landscape analysis, development and evaluation of alternatives, selecting the preferred options, implementation, and monitoring. The planning process follows long standing and established ecological planning methods which use landscape structure, function, change, and scale to diagnose current conditions and predict future scenarios and potential outcomes.^[2] Landscape planning was originally used int he context of non-urban land use, but it has evolved to be commonly used to address urban, peri-urban, and rural environments an treat them as interconnected systems instead of independent environments. The field has evolved because scientists now understand that most landscapes exist as urbanized social–ecological systems which result from ecological processes and cultural practices and economic activities and institutional frameworks.^[1]

Despite the practical importance of landscape planning, it is widely described as an under-theorized field. Compared to adjacent fields such as ecology or geography, relatively few journals explicitly address landscape planning theory. Landscape and Urban Planning is one of the only major journals dedicated to landscape planning and even it emphasizes practice more than theory, which contributes to a weak conceptual framework of the whole field.^[2] Landscape planning draws from ecology, sociology, economics, engineering, and design. While the interdisciplinary nature is essential to the practical application of landscape planning, it also means that landscape planning lacks a single shared theoretical tradition. Linked fields such as landscape sociology are themselves new fields and not fully defined, adding to theoretical and conceptual confusion.^[3] Earlier generations of landscape planners relied on theories such as general systems theory, hierarchy theory, and stability models, however, these frameworks appear less frequently in contemporary literature and are essentially replaced by applicational concepts, such as green infrastructure, ecosystem services, social equity, health, cultural values, and governance, which outpaced the developing of a consolidated theory and creates gaps between practice and concept.^[2] In addition, landscape planning has highly elaborate procedural models aren't consistently grounded in a unified theory of landscape planning. Scientific concepts from landscape ecology, such as connectivity, resilience, and multi functionality, are used intensively during the landscape analysis phase and far less during goal development, decision making, and monitoring phases, showing incomplete theoretical integration across the structured sequence landscape planning typically follows.^[2]

According to Erv Zube (1931–2002) landscape planning is defined as an activity concerned with developing landscaping amongst competing land uses while protecting natural processes and significant cultural and natural resources. Park systems and greenways of the type designed by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners analyze broad issues as well as project characteristics which constrain design projects.

Landscape planners may work on projects which are of broad geographical scope, concern many land uses or many clients or are implemented over a long period of time. As an example, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.

Landscape planning is the process of analyzing and organizing land resources as well as water resources to create sustainable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing landscapes. It integrates ecological, social, cultural, and economic factors to guide spatial development and environmental management.

In Europe

Alberti wrote on the need for town squares for markets and specific implementations to make most use of the space.^[4] In North Europe this developed into the idea that residential squares should be planned around green spaces. The first space of this type was the Place des Vosges. Residential squares were also made in Britain and their planning developed into the idea of incorporating public open space (public parks within towns). Frederick Law Olmsted gave momentum to this idea with his proposal for a park systems in Boston - the famous Emerald Necklace. Patrick Abercrombie took up this idea and incorporated it in his great 1943-4 Open Space Plan for the County of London. An example of landscape planning in use is the plans of RWE in the wake of its mining operations and how they plan to use leftover detritus and soil in their re-cultivation efforts to restore the damaged ecosystems and landscapes created by open pit mines (e.g. Garzweiler surface mine).^[5]

In the UK

Sir (Leslie) Patrick Abercrombie FRIBA

An image of the town of Castle Combe in the Cotswolds AONB

Landscape planning in the United Kingdom evolved from early preservation and public amenity movements and has become an integral element in spatial and environmental planning. Conservation interests in the scenic and cultural value of the countryside during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries influenced the formation of bodies such as the National Trust in 1895 and contributed to general debates on the protection of "natural beauty," "cultural heritage," and access to open space.^[6] Early twentieth century planners, such as Patrick Abercrombie,^[6] advocated for systematic landscape surveys as a basis for regional plans, linking countryside conservation to urban growth management. After World War II, national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) were formally established through the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, as a statuary framework to protect valued landscapes across England and Wales (and later Northern Ireland).^[7][8] These early policy and landscape protection initiatives followed objectives in heritage and social welfare, and provided public enjoyment as well as preservation. The Countryside Act 1968, and the earlier Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967, pushed this approach to also cover countryside recreation, ecological conservation, and the planning of rural areas beyond designated areas of scenic quality. From the 1960s and 70s, the rise of environmental awareness and applied ecological approach influenced the practice of landscape planning.^[6] The development of ecological design, formed by works such as Ian McHarg's Design with Nature (1969), and the emerging environment impact assessment procedures in the Environmental Assessment Regulations 1988 acts supported the inclusion of environmental science in planning processes. From the twentieth century onwards landscape character assessment (LCA)^[6] became a widely adopted method for describing, classifying, and managing landscape types across the UK. This approach presented landscapes as a product of natural processes and cultural practices, supporting the view that all landscapes have distinct characteristics that should be considered in planning and policy.

In the twenty first century, the European Landscape Convention (2000)^[6] reinforced these developments in landscape planning by treating landscape as a universal and changing phenomenon, not something specific to the countryside, extending planning responsibilities to Urban, peri-urban, and degraded areas as well as to traditionally protected countryside. UK government agencies, such as Natural England, NatureScot (formerly Scottish Natural Heritage), and the Countryside Council for Wales, integrated the principles concerning environmental awareness and the universality of landscapes into national and regional frameworks that link together landscape character, biodiversity, and cultural identity with sustainable development and community participation. Modern landscape planning in the UK operates across the country's urban and rural landscapes, trying to balance conservational and developmental objectives while contributing to nation wide  agendas of regeneration, climate adaptation, and sustainable land management.

In the US

Landscape planning in the United States has developed through a combination of ecological science, urban design, and regional land use policy. Early work by figures such as Frederick Law Olmsted established the foundation for large scale park systems and greenway planning. At the same time, mid-20th-century conservation policies expanded the role of federal and state agencies in managing public lands, watersheds, and wildlife habitats. Contemporary landscape planning in the U.S. increasingly incorporates climate adaptation, resilience strategies, and nature based solutions, particularly in coastal and urban regions. Major initiatives to consider include regional green infrastructure networks, coastal resilience projects, and river restoration programs, reflecting a shift toward integrating ecological processes with urban development and community planning. These efforts are supported by diverse institutions, including the National Park Service, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and local planning agencies, contributing to a broad and evolving landscape planning framework across the country.^[9]

Golden Gate Bridge and San Francisco

Cities such as San Francisco are advancing large scale projects, such as the Sunset Boulevard Greenway, which will feature rain gardens to capture and manage stormwater, reducing reliance on traditional sewer systems. Planetizen. Meanwhile, towns in the Southeast are engaging in long-term conservation planning: the U.S. Geological Survey’s “Conservation Landscape of the Future” initiative works with state agencies to restore fragmented ecosystems amidst rapid urbanization. USGS In Milwaukee, a city-wide water-centric planning strategy is underway, shifting grey infrastructure toward more sustainable models by converting parking lots and schoolyards into permeable, vegetated green spaces. ICLEI USA On the grassroots level, The Greening of Detroit is leading urban forestry programs that aim to expand the tree canopy, hire local workers, and integrate stormwater retention landscapes in once considered to be blighted neighborhoods. However, these efforts face ongoing financial challenges: broader support for urban forests is threatened by reductions in federal funding, as seen in the recent loss of a $600,000 grant to the Cleveland Tree Coalition. American Planning Association^[10]

General GIS Example, focused on reconstruction

In the United States, landscape architects provide landscape planning services focused on the natural environment along with urban planners. But, unlike Canada and Europe, the US does not have a national land use planning system. Frederick Law Olmsted and Ian McHarg are two influential American landscape architects that also worked as planners. McHarg's work on overlay landscape planning contributed to the development of GIS and to the foundation of ESRI by Jack Dangermond.

In Asia and Singapore

Landscape planning in Asia particularly in rapidly urbanizing and densely populated places such as the city state of Singapore presents unique challenges and opportunities. Traditional notions of landscape (gardens, green belts, public parks) are being reinterpreted in the context of high-density development, tropical climates, limited land, and increasing climate risks ^[5]

In Asia, the interplay of cultural heritage, ecological sensitivity, rapid economic development and urban expansion makes landscape planning a dynamic and evolving field. A growing body of scholarship highlights how “green infrastructure” and multifunctional landscapes are being used to enhance livability, resilience and ecosystem services in East Asian and Southeast Asian cities. ^[11]

Jewel Rain Vortex Waterfall at Jewel Changi Airport, Singapore

Singapore is widely recognized for its comprehensive approach to landscape planning, which integrates urban development with large-scale ecological and recreational networks. Since the 1960s, national planning strategies have emphasized greenery as a core component of city-building, leading to initiatives such as the Park Connector Network, a system of continuous green corridors linking major parks, nature reserves, and waterways throughout the island. The Urban Redevelopment Authority and the National Parks Board coordinate long term landscape and biodiversity planning, including the creation of the Nature Ways program and the expansion of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve's buffer zones. These efforts support habitat connectivity, stormwater management, and climate adaptation while contributing to Singapore’s positioning as a “City in Nature.” Landscape planning remains tightly integrated with transport, housing, and water management policies, making Singapore what many can refer to as a prominent international example of landscape based urban planning^[12][13].^[14]

Legislation

The principles of landscape planning are now incorporated in various types of legislation and policy documents. In America, the National Environmental Policy Act was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg on Environmental impact assessment. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships between development and the landscape. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. The Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have extensive impacts on the landscape. They have been planned to a degree but future monitoring of the project is likely to show that better landscape planning and design would have been possible. See also, National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, Countryside Act 1968, Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967, and Environmental Assessment Regulations 1988.

In addition, contemporary U.S. climate legislation increasingly embeds landscape planning principles in urban policy and ecological resilience. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency’s Green Infrastructure Program explicitly supports using vegetation, soils, and natural systems to manage stormwater and reduce reliance on traditional grey infrastructure, thereby formalizing landscape planning within federal water policy. EPA ^[15] The U.S. Forest Services Urban and Community Forestry Program provides grants to state and local governments, nonprofits, and tribal entities to expand tree canopy, restore urban forests, and promote integration of green infrastructure into underserved communities, an effort bolstered by a historic $1.5 billion allocation under the Inflation Reduction Act.^[16] These programs reflect a shift in federal policy as landscape ecological planning is now seen not only as an environmental good, but as a tool for climate adaptation, public health, and environmental justice.^[17]

In Europe, the importance of landscape planning is enshrined in the Council of Europe’s European Landscape Convention, which promotes the protection, management, and planning of landscapes across member states and encourages integration of landscape concerns into public policy at all levels. ^[18] The European Union has further mainstreamed landscape scale approaches through strategies such as the EU Green Infrastructure initiative and the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, which promote nature based solutions, green and blue infrastructure, and the systematic integration of ecosystems into spatial and urban planning. At the national level, countries such as Germany implement these principles through legislation, such as the Federal Nature Conservation Act, which explicitly requires consideration of landscape management and planning in development decisions. In Asia, major infrastructure projects have highlighted both the application and limits of statutory environmental assessment of China’s Environmental Impact Assessment framework which in turn governs large projects and planning yet post project studies of the Three Gorges Dam demonstrate that landscape level of social and ecological impacts often require long term monitoring and adaptive planning beyond initial assessments.

Methodology

The landscape planning process is commonly described as a sequence of interconnected stages used to guide the assessment, design, and long-term management of landscapes. Although the order and emphasis of steps may vary based on project specifics many frameworks outline a similar progression of steps.^[19][20]

Framework includes:

• Identification of problems and opportunities (establishing the key issues to be addressed and potential areas for improvement.)
• Goal setting (defining desired outcomes and planning objectives.)
• Biophysical inventory and analysis (collecting and evaluating information on soils, water, vegetation, climate, and other environmental components.)
• Human community inventory and analysis (examining social, cultural, and economic conditions, community needs, and stakeholder values.)
• Development and evaluation of alternative concepts (generating planning options and assessing their feasibility and potential impacts.)
• Plan adoption (selecting a preferred option and formalizing the plan.)
• Public involvement and education (engaging stakeholders throughout the process to ensure transparency and local input.)
• Detailed design (translating planning principles into site specific design proposals.)
• Implementation (carrying out the adopted plan through construction, policy actions, or management strategies.)
• Administration and monitoring (overseeing the plans execution and evaluating its performance over time.)

Landscape planning is not limited to ecological approaches, but ecological principles often play a significant role. Steiner (1991) defines ecological planning as “the use of biophysical and sociocultural information to identify opportunities and constraints for decision making about the use of landscape.” This perspective highlights the integration of scientific information with community values to guide land use decisions.

Because landscape planning is applied in a wide range of geographic, cultural, and regulatory contexts, the process is inherently adaptable. The sequence of steps may be modified to address specific goals such as conservation, urban development, recreation planning, or climate adaptation. This flexibility allows landscape planning to serve as a framework for both small-scale site design and large-scale regional planning efforts.

Impacts and implications

Results of proper implementations of landscape planning practices are not only limited to more functional landscapes. It can also influence for the better many aspects of the environment and community in which it is used to its potential. While the chief purpose of landscape planning is for ecological reasons it can impact so much more when used effectively as a tool.

Ecology

Landscape planning is mainly used for ecological purposes and functions best when the result of the planning process is the least amount of interruption of ecological factors from before the implementation ever went into place.^[21] In this practice landscape planning can be used to not only maintain the status of the existing environment, but also can be used to improve aspects of previously under performing ecosystems, for example, designing to increase biodiversity. For example Landscape planning could be used to create additional habitat for endangered species, and reclamation of previously used or depleted lands (e.g. old agricultural spaces) for expansion of natural ecosystems.^[11] This also includes planning in order to reduce the impact of the changes to the environment. with proper landscape planning, a greater speed of recovery for the ecosystems of interrupted spaces is achievable.

Health

Similar to the impacts of healing gardens, the positive healing effects of proper implementations of planned landscapes are of great benefit. When people are exposed to nature, they would find that their overall mood had improved and that they recover from stress and illness at an accelerated rate. With the proper use of landscape planning, health within an urban leaning environment in regards to stress and recovery can be greatly improved above the unplanned alternative.^[22] When landscape planning is used to properly conserve ecological systems that may have been displaced, it makes it so recreational use of the environment is maintained while conserving the systems for people to enjoy.

Use of other technologies in context

The development of GIS technology such as those developed by ESRI, have great import to the practice of Landscape planning. Use of assisting technology allows for the conditions and factors existing in a landscape to be easily aggregated and analyzed. Through the use of GIS technology you are able to answer many of the questions about a landscape that is in question. such as, "how functional is this landscape?" or "to what extent do the factors outside of the site affect the planning that needs to be done?"^[23] The use of technology that is developing with greater and greater accuracy has the ability to make sustainable developments easier and more common across the globe.

Impactful Projects

Netherlands Aerial River View

1. Ecological Regional Planning

Groene Hart

The Netherlands Room for the River Program

High Line

The Green Heart (Groene Hart), Netherlands

The Plan for the Valle de Aburrá, Colombia

2. Urban Green Infrastructure

The High Line (New York City, USA)

The Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration, Seoul, South Korea

Singapore’s Park Connector Network & National Biodiversity Strategy

3. Landscape Urbanism & New Town Planning

Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden

Vauban District, Freiburg, Germany

Hammarby sjöstad

4. Climate Adaptation & Coastal Resilience

East Side Coastal Resiliency, New York City, USA

Thames Estuary 2100 Plan, United Kingdom

5. Landscape Conservation & Cultural Landscapes

UNESCO Cultural Landscape Programs such as:

The Loire Valley Cultural Landscape, France

Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras

Tuscany Agricultural Landscapes, Italy

6. Regional Greenway & Open Space Systems

The Green Belt, United Kingdom

The Atlanta Beltline, USA

Roadside green infrastructure in Somerville, MA

Key Themes and Concepts[1][2][3]

1. Integrated Social-Ecological systems:
   • Modern landscape planning treats landscapes as couples human-natural systems and emphasizes interactions between ecological processes such as hydrology and biodiversity, human behaviors, and institutional frameworks, which aligns with broader movements with multi disciplinary and sustainable science.
2. Landscape analysis:
   • using analytic tools to analyze landscape structure, function, scale, and changes over different time frames, and using these concepts to guide assessments of land cover patterns, ecological flows, risks, and suitability, which form the scientific foundation for planning alternatives.^[2]
3. Ecosystem and landscape services:
   • Evaluates the benefits landscapes provide such as recreation, climate regulation, or cultural meaning, have become central to landscape planning.
4. Green Infrastructure:
   • the prominence of green infrastructure in landscape planning reflects the viewpoint that urban landscapes are critical ecological systems.
5. Landscape Perception and aesthetics
   • Human perception and aesthetic values are a significant part of landscape planning decisions. Research on visual quality, landscape identity, and social meanings of place help align the outcome with public expectation.
6. Stakeholder participation and governance
   • Issues of policy, governance, stakeholder participation, and social learning are something planners have to take into account with great consideration as stakeholders and the government decide whether the project goes through or not.

See also

• Landscape architecture
• Landscape manager
• Landscape ecology
• Landscape Institute
• Landscape urbanism
• Environmental impact assessment
• Urban design
• Growth management
• Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
• Sustainable city
• Sustainable landscape architecture
• European Landscape Convention
• Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape

Footnotes

• Landscape planning education in America: retrospect and prospect
• Ecological design and planning George F. Thompson and Frederick R. Steiner, (Wiley, 1997)
• Landscape planning : an introduction to theory and practice Hackett, Brian (Oriel, 1971)
• Landscape planning and environmental impact design Tom Turner (2nd ed UCL Press, 1998)
• Design with nature Ian L. McHarg ( Wiley, 1992)
• The living landscape: an ecological approach to landscape planning Steiner, Frederick R. (McGraw-Hill College, 1991)