Singapore is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. The Constitution of Singapore is the supreme law of the country, establishing the structure and responsibility of governance. The President is the head of state.^[124]^[125] The governance of Singapore is separated into three branches:

Executive: The executive consists of the cabinet, led by the prime minister, and the Attorney General's Chambers led by the Attorney-General.^[126] The cabinet is collectively responsible for all government policies and the day-to-day administration of the affairs of state. It is typically composed of members of the Singapore Parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the President, and the ministers in the cabinet and the attorney-general are appointed by the president, acting on the advice and consent of the prime minister. The prime minister is the effective head of the executive branch of government.^[127]^[124]
Legislature: The Singapore Parliament is unicameral and, together with the president, comprises the legislature.^[128] Members of Parliament (MP) consist of elected, non-constituency, and nominated members. The majority of MPs are elected into parliament at a general election. The Singapore Parliament is collectively responsible for enacting the laws governing the state.^[124] The president holds limited discretionary powers of oversight over the government. The president's veto powers are further subject to parliamentary overruling.^[129]^[130]
Judiciary: The judiciary's function is to independently administer justice and is headed by the Chief Justice. The judges and judicial commissioners are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.^[131] The Supreme Court and State Courts adjudicates in civil disputes between persons, convicts or acquits accused persons in criminal prosecutions, and interprets laws to decide on its constitutionality. Any law or provision of a law found to be unconstitutional can be struck down by the Supreme Court.^[132]

The president is directly elected by popular vote for a renewable six-year term. Requirements for this position, which were enacted by the PAP government, are extremely stringent, such that only a handful of people qualify for the candidacy.^[133]^[134] These qualifications include that a candidate needs to be a person at least 45 years of age who is no longer a member of a political party, to either have held public office for at least 3 years in a number of specific public service leadership roles, or to have 3 years experience as chief executive of a fully profitable private sector company with at least S$500 million in shareholders' equity, be a resident in Singapore for at least 10 years, not have a criminal record, and more.^[135]^[134]^[136] Candidates must also "satisfy" the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) that he or she is a person of integrity, good character and reputation.^{[citation needed]}

From 2017, the Constitution requires that presidential elections be "reserved" for a racial community if no one from that ethnic group has been elected to the presidency in the five most recent terms.^[137] Only members of that community may qualify as candidates in a reserved presidential election.^[138] In the 2017 presidential election, this combination of stringent requirements and a reserved election that required the candidate to be of the 13% Malay ethnic group led to the PEC approving a single candidate for the presidency;^[139] Halimah Yacob, considered part of the Malay community, won in an uncontested election. She also became Singapore's first female president.

Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected at least every five years (or sooner with a snap election). The 14th and current Parliament has 103 members; 93 were directly elected from the 31 constituencies, nine are nonpartisan nominated members appointed by the president, and three are non-constituency members from opposition parties who were not elected in the last general election but appointed to the legislature to increase opposition party representation. In group representation constituencies (GRCs), political parties assemble teams of candidates to contest elections. At least one MP in a GRC must be of an ethnic minority background. All elections are held using first-past-the-post voting.^[140] MPs host weekly political surgeries, called "Meet-the-People Sessions", where they help constituents resolve personal issues which can be related to housing, financial assistance, and immigration.^[141]

The People's Action Party occupies a dominant position in Singaporean politics, having won large parliamentary majorities in every election since self-governance was granted in 1959. The PAP, self-described as pragmatic, have a syncretic ideology combining free-market principles, civil nationalism, and welfarism.^[142]^[143]^[144] Despite promulgating restrictions on civil liberties, Singapore under the PAP has seen consistent economic growth and political stability.^[145] The most represented and popular opposition party is the centre-left Workers' Party, which holds 8 seats in Parliament.^[122]

The long-standing hegemony of the People's Action Party has led to Singapore being described by academics as an illiberal democracy,^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149] or a soft-authoritarian state in which the PAP faces little to no feasible political competition to its rule of the country.^[150]^[151]^[152]^[153] The multi-party democratic process of Singapore has been described as "minimal" in comparison to the state's focus on economic development and social order.^[154] According to Gordon P. Means, professor emeritus of political science at McMaster University, Singapore reinvented the "benevolent" yet "highly authoritarian" colonial system of governance inherited from Britain rather than forging a full democracy. A conservative ideology of "Asian values" evolved to replace British rule, based on "communal loyalty, distrust of government, and avoidance of individual or collective responsibility for wider public interests", with less regard for human rights in the nascent Western sense.^[155] The fact that "neither the public nor elites had experience with democracy" helped create Singapore's political culture, as dominated by status-focused hierarchies committed to economic development.^[151] The legacy of Asian values and the limited political culture within Singapore has led to the country being described as "classic illustration of soft authoritarianism",^[154] and "profoundly illiberal".^[156]

The judicial system is based on English common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule and with substantial local differences. Criminal law is based on the Indian Penal Code originally intended for British India, and was at the time as a crown colony also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Singapore and remains the basis of the criminal code in the country with a few exceptions, amendments and repeals since it came into force.^[157] Trial by jury was abolished in 1970.^[158] Singapore is known for its strict laws and conservative stances on crime; both corporal punishment (by caning)^[159]^[160] and capital punishment (by hanging) are retained and commonly used as legal penalties.^[161]

The right to freedom of speech and association is guaranteed by Article 14(1) of the Constitution of Singapore, although there are provisions in the subsequent subsection that regulate them.^[162] The government has restricted freedom of speech and freedom of the press as well as some civil and political rights.^[163] In 2023, Singapore was ranked 129th out of 180 nations by Reporters Without Borders on the global Press Freedom Index.^[164] Freedom House ranks Singapore as "partly free" in its Freedom in the World report,^[165]^[145] and the Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Singapore as a "flawed democracy", the second freest rank of four, in its "Democracy Index".^[166]^[167] All public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests may legally be held only at the Speakers' Corner.^[168]

In the Corruption Perceptions Index, which ranks countries by "perceived levels of public sector corruption", Singapore has consistently ranked as one of the least corrupt countries in the world, in spite of being illiberal.^[169] Singapore's unique combination of a strong, soft authoritarian government with an emphasis on meritocracy is known as the "Singapore model", and is regarded as a key factor behind Singapore's political stability, economic growth, and harmonious social order.^[170]^[171]^[172]^[173] In 2021, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore as 17th overall among the world's 193 countries for adherence to the rule of law. Singapore ranked high on the factors of order and security (#3), absence of corruption (#3), regulatory enforcement (#4), civil justice (#8), and criminal justice (#7), and ranked significantly lower on factors of open government (#34), constraints on government powers (#32), and fundamental rights (#38).^[174]

Foreign relations

Singapore's stated foreign policy priority is maintaining security in Southeast Asia and surrounding territories. An underlying principle is political and economic stability in the region.^[175] It has diplomatic relations with more than 180 sovereign states.^[176]

As one of the five founding members of ASEAN,^[177] Singapore is a strong supporter of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Investment Area (AIA); it is also the host of the APEC Secretariat.^[178] Singapore is also a founding member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS), a voluntary and informal grouping at the UN.^[179]

Singapore maintains membership in other regional organisations, such as Asia–Europe Meeting, the Forum for East Asia-Latin American Cooperation, the Indian Ocean Rim Association, and the East Asia Summit.^[175] It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement,^[180] the United Nations and the Commonwealth.^[181]^[182] While Singapore is not a formal member of the G20, it has been invited to participate in G20 processes in most years since 2010.^[183] Singapore is also the location of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat.^[184]

In general, bilateral relations with other ASEAN members are strong; however, disagreements have arisen,^[185] and relations with neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia have sometimes been strained.^[186] Malaysia and Singapore have clashed over the delivery of fresh water to Singapore,^[187] and access by the Singapore Armed Forces to Malaysian airspace.^[186] Border issues exist with Malaysia and Indonesia, and both have banned the sale of marine sand to Singapore over disputes about Singapore's land reclamation.^[188] Some previous disputes, such as the Pedra Branca dispute, have been resolved by the International Court of Justice.^[189] Piracy in the Strait of Malacca has been a cause of concern for all three countries.^[187] Close economic ties exist with Brunei, and the two share a pegged currency value, through a Currency Interchangeability Agreement between the two countries which makes both Brunei dollar and Singapore dollar banknotes and coins legal tender in either country.^[190]^[191]

The first diplomatic contact with China was made in the 1970s, with full diplomatic relations established in the 1990s. China has been Singapore's largest trading partner since 2013, after surpassing Malaysia.^[192]^[193]^[194]^[195]^[196] Singapore and the United States share a long-standing close relationship, in particular in defence, the economy, health, and education. Singapore has also increased co-operation with ASEAN members and China to strengthen regional security and fight terrorism, and participated in ASEAN's first joint maritime exercise with China in 2018.^[197] It has also given support to the US-led coalition to fight terrorism, with bilateral co-operation in counter-terrorism and counter-proliferation initiatives, and joint military exercises.^[185]

As Singapore has diplomatic relations with both the United States and North Korea, and was one of the few countries that have relationships with both countries,^[198] in June 2018, it hosted a historic summit between US President Donald Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un, the first-ever meeting between the sitting leaders of the two nations.^[199]^[200] It also hosted the Ma–Xi meeting in 2015, the first meeting between the political leaders of the two sides of the Taiwan Strait since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950.^[201]^[202]^[203]

Military

The Singaporean military, arguably the most technologically advanced in Southeast Asia,^[204] consists of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Digital and Intelligence Service. It is seen as the guarantor of the country's independence,^[205] translating into Singapore culture, involving all citizens in the country's defence.^[206] The government spends 4.9% of the country's GDP on the military—high by regional standards^[204]—and one out of every four dollars of government spending is spent on defence.^[207]

After its independence, Singapore had only two infantry regiments commanded by British officers. Considered too small to provide effective security for the new country, the development of its military forces became a priority.^[208] In addition, in October 1971, Britain pulled its military out of Singapore, leaving behind only a small British, Australian and New Zealand force as a token military presence.^[209] A great deal of initial support came from Israel,^[208] a country unrecognised by Singapore's neighbouring Muslim-majority nations of Malaysia and Indonesia.^[210]^[211]^[212] The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) commanders were tasked by the Singapore Government to create the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) from scratch, and Israeli instructors were brought in to train Singaporean soldiers. Military courses were conducted according to the IDF's format, and Singapore adopted a system of conscription and reserve service based on the Israeli model.^[208] Singapore still maintains strong security ties with Israel and is one of the biggest buyers of Israeli arms and weapons systems,^[213] with one recent example being the MATADOR anti-tank weapon.^[214]

The SAF is being developed to respond to a wide range of issues in both conventional and unconventional warfare. The Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) is responsible for procuring resources for the military.^[215] The geographic restrictions of Singapore mean that the SAF must plan to fully repulse an attack, as they cannot fall back and re-group. The small size of the population has also affected the way the SAF has been designed, with a small active force and a large number of reserves.^[206]

Singapore has conscription for all able-bodied males at age 18, except those with a criminal record or who can prove that their loss would bring hardship to their families. Males who have yet to complete pre-university education, are awarded the Public Service Commission (PSC) scholarship, or are pursuing a local medical degree can opt to defer their draft.^[216]^[217] Though not required to perform military service, the number of women in the SAF has been increasing: since 1989 they have been allowed to fill military vocations formerly reserved for men. Before induction into a specific branch of the armed forces, recruits undergo at least nine weeks of basic military training.^[218]

Because of the scarcity of open land on the main island, training involving activities such as live firing and amphibious warfare are often carried out on smaller islands, typically barred to civilian access. However, large-scale drills, considered too dangerous to be performed in the country, have been performed in other countries such as Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand and the United States. In general, military exercises are held with foreign forces once or twice per week.^[206] Due to airspace and land constraints, the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) maintains a number of overseas bases in Australia, the United States, and France. The RSAF's 130 Squadron is based in RAAF Base Pearce, Western Australia,^[219] and its 126 Squadron is based in the Oakey Army Aviation Centre, Queensland.^[220] The RSAF has one squadron—the 150 Squadron—based in Cazaux Air Base in southern France.^[221] The RSAF's overseas detachments in the United States are: Luke Air Force Base in Arizona, Marana in Arizona, Mountain Home Air Force Base in Idaho, and Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.^[222]^[223]^[224]

The SAF has sent forces to assist in operations outside the country, in areas such as Iraq,^[225] and Afghanistan,^[226]^[227] in both military and civilian roles. In the region, they have helped to stabilise East Timor and have provided aid to Aceh in Indonesia following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.^{[citation needed]} Since 2009, the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) has deployed ships to the Gulf of Aden to aid in countering piracy efforts as part of Task Force 151.^[228] The SAF also helped in relief efforts during Hurricane Katrina,^[229] and Typhoon Haiyan.^[230] Singapore is part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA), a military alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.^[206] According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Singapore is the 5th most peaceful country in the world.^[231]

Human rights

Capital punishment is a legal and enforced penalty in Singapore. The country is one of four in the developed world to retain the death penalty, along with the United States, Japan and Taiwan. Particularly, its use against drug trafficking has been a source of contention with various non-governmental organisations,^[who?] regarded by some as a victimless crime.^{[citation needed]} The government has responded that it has "no doubts" that it is the right policy and that there is "clear evidence" of serious deterrence, and that the law should be looked at upon in the wider context of "saving lives", particularly citizens.^[232] In 2004, Amnesty International claimed that some legal provisions of the Singapore system for the death penalty conflict with "the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty".^[233] The government has disputed Amnesty's claims, stating that their "position on abolition of the death penalty is by no means uncontested internationally" and that the report contains "grave errors of facts and misrepresentations".^[234]

From 1938 to 2023, sexual relations between men were technically illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code, first introduced during British colonial rule.^[235] During the last few decades, this law was mostly unenforced and pressure to repeal it increased as homosexuality became more accepted by Singaporean society.^[236] Meanwhile, sexual relations between women had always been legal.^[237] In 2022, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that Singapore would repeal 377A, effectively decriminalising homosexual behaviour. Nevertheless, he added that the repeal will not affect the recognition of "traditional familial and societal norms," including how marriage is defined, leaving the legal status of same-sex marriage unchanged for the time, although the possibility of civil unions was not officially ruled out.^[238] Lee described this as a compromise between the conservative (and often religious) and progressive elements of Singaporean society to prevent further political fracturing.^[239] The law was officially repealed on 3 January 2023.^[240]

Pink Dot SG, an event held in support of the LGBT community, has drawn thousands of people annually since 2009 with increasing attendance.^[241] According to a survey conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies in 2019, Singaporean society has become more liberal on LGBT rights. In the survey, more than 20% of people said that sexual relations between adults of the same sex were not wrong at all or not wrong most of the time, up from 10% in 2013. The survey found that 27% felt the same way about same-sex marriage (an increase from 15% in 2013) and 30% did so about same-sex couples adopting a child (an increase from 24% in 2013).^[242]^[243] In 2021, six Singaporeans protested for improved trans protections in the educational system outside the Ministry of Education headquarters at Buona Vista.^[244]

Pimps often traffic women from neighbouring countries such as China, Malaysia and Vietnam at their brothels as well as rented apartments and hostels for higher profit margins when they get a cut from customers.^[245]^[246] In response, amendments were made to the Women's Charter by the government in 2019 to legislate more serious punishments for traffickers, including imprisonment of up to seven years and a fine of S$100,000.^[247]